Western Civilization

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Agricultural (Neolithic) Revolution

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the shift from hunting animals and gathering plants for sustenance to producing food by systematic agriculture that occurred gradually between 10,000 and 4000 b.c. (the Neolithic or “New Stone” Age).

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civilization

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a complex culture in which large numbers of human beings share a number of common elements, including an urban focus, a distinct religious structure, new political and military structures, a new social structure based on economic power, the development of writing, and new forms of artistic and intellectual activity.

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cuneiform

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“wedge-shaped.” A system of writing developed by the Sumerians that consisted of wedge-shaped impressions made by a reed stylus on clay tablets.

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divination

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the practice of seeking to foretell future events by interpreting divine signs, which could appear in various forms, such as in entrails of animals, in patterns in smoke, or in dreams.

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hieroglyphics

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a highly pictorial system of writing used in ancient Egypt.

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Ma’at

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an Egyptian spiritual principle precept that conveyed the idea of truth and justice, especially right order and harmony.

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Mesolithic Age

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the period from 10,000 to 7000 b.c., characterized by a gradual transition from a food-gathering/hunting economy to a food-producing economy.

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Paleolithic Age

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the period of human history when humans used simple stone tools (c. 2,500,000–10,000 b.c.).

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polytheism

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the belief in more than one god.

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ziggurat

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a massive stepped tower upon which a temple dedicated to the chief god or goddess of a Sumerian city was built.

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monotheistic/monotheism

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having only one god; the doctrine or belief that there is only one god.

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patriarchal

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values the authority of the husband and father over spouse and children.

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Pentateuch

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the first five books of the Hebrew Bible (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy).

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satrap/satrapy

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a governor with both civil and military duties in the ancient Persian Empire, which was divided into satrapies, or provinces, each administered by a satrap.

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Torah

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the body of law in Hebrew Scripture, contained in the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Hebrew Bible).

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Zoroastrianism

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a religion founded by the Persian Zoroaster in the seventh century b.c.; characterized by worship of a supreme god Ahuramazda who represents the good against the evil spirit, identified as Ahriman.

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appella

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Spartan assembly of all male citizens.

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eccelsia

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Athenian assembly; included all male citizens over the age of eighteen.

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ephors

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Spartan officials responsible for convening the gerousia, supervising the education of youth and the conduct of citizens, and serving as judges in all civil cases.

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gerousia

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Spartan council of elders elected by the assembly.

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helots

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serfs in ancient Sparta, who were permanently bound to the land that they worked for their Spartan masters.

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hetairai

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highly sophisticated courtesans in ancient Athens who offered intellectual and musical entertainment as well as sex.

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hoplites

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heavily armed infantry soldiers used in ancient Greece in a phalanx formation.

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kouros figures

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early form of Greek sculpture; these life-size statues of young made nudes are not realistic, but stiff and show considerable resemblance to Egyptian statues of the New Kingdom.

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metics

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resident foreigners in ancient Athens; not permitted full rights of citizenship but did receive the protection of the laws.

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phalanx

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a rectangular formation of tightly massed infantry soldiers.

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polis

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an ancient Greek city-state encompassing both an urban area and its surrounding countryside; a small but autonomous political unit where all major political and social activities were carried out in a central location.

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polytheistic/polytheism

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having many gods; belief in or the worship of more than one god.

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Socratic method

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a form of teaching that uses a question-and-answer format to enable students to reach conclusions by using their own reasoning.

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Sophists

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wandering scholars and professional teachers in ancient Greece who stressed the importance of rhetoric and tended toward skepticism and relativism.

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tyrant/tyranny

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in an ancient Greek polis (or an Italian city-state during the Renaissance), a ruler who came to power in an unconstitutional way and ruled without being subject to the law.

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Diaspora

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the dispersion or scattering of Jews; this process began with the Assyrian conquest of Israel in 722.

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Epicureanism

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a philosophy founded by Epicurus in the fourth century b.c. that taught that happiness (freedom from emotional turmoil) could be achieved through the pursuit of pleasure (intellectual rather than sensual ¬pleasure).

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gymnasium

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in classical Greece, a place for athletics; in the Hellenistic Age, a secondary school with a curriculum centered on music, physical exercise, and literature.

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hegemon

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leader; Philip of Macedon was recognized as hegemon of the Corinthian League and its army.

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Hellenistic

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literally, “to imitate the Greeks”; the era after the death of Alexander the Great when Greek culture spread into the Near East and blended with the culture of that region.

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mystery religions

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popular cults that offered individuals salvation through highly emotional initiation rituals.

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Stoicism

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a philosophy founded by Zeno in the fourth century b.c. that taught that happiness could be obtained by accepting one’s lot and living in harmony with the will of God, thereby achieving inner peace.

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syncretism

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a blending of religious beliefs and concepts during the Hellenistic era, possible because Greeks and easterners assumed they were worshipping the same beings with different names.