Western Civ Exam 1 Pre Hist To Anc China

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Prehistory

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is a term often used to describe the period before written history. The date marking the end of prehistory, that is the date when written historical records become a useful academic resource, varies from region to region. In Egypt it is generally accepted that prehistory ended around 3500 BC whereas in New Guinea the end of the prehistoric era is set much more recently, 1900.

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Hominids

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A hominid is any member of the biological family Hominidae (the "great apes"), including the extinct and extant humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans. This classification has been revised several times in the last few decades. These various revisions have led to a varied use of the word "hominid": The original meaning of Hominidae referred only to the modern meaning of Hominina, including only humans and their closest relatives. The meaning of the taxon changed gradually, leading to the modern meaning of "hominid" in which it includes all great apes.

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Homo Erectus

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(Latin: "upright man") is an extinct species of the genus Homo. H. erectus is an important hominin because it is believed to have been the first to leave Africa. However, some scholars believe that H. erectus is not the direct ancestor of modern H. sapiens. Homo erectus used more diverse and sophisticated tools than its predecessors. This has been theorized to have been a result of Homo erectus first using tools of the Oldowan style and later progressing to the Acheulean style. The surviving tools from both periods are all made of stone.

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Homo Sapiens

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are bipedal primates belonging to the mammalian species Homo sapiens (Latin: "wise man" or "knowing man") in the family Hominidae (the great apes). Compared to other living organisms on Earth, we have a highly developed brain capable of abstract reasoning, language, and introspection. This mental capability, combined with an erect body carriage that frees our upper limbs for manipulating objects, has allowed us to make far greater use of tools than any other species. Human beings originated in Africa about 200,000 years ago, but we now inhabit every continent, with a total population of over 6.6 billion as of 2007

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Palaeolithic

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-is a prehistoric era distinguished by the development of stone tools. It covers virtually all of humanity's time on Earth, extending from 2.5 million years ago, with the introduction of stone tools by hominids such as Homo habilis, to the introduction of agriculture in around 10,000 BCE.The term "Paleolithic", literally "Old Age of the Stone", was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865 and derives from the Greek "παλαιός", "paleos" ("old") and "λίθος", "lithos", ("stone"). The Paleolithic era ended with the Mesolithic, or in areas with an early neolithisation, the Epipaleolithic.The Paleolithic is characterized by the utilization of knapped stone tools, although humans at the time also used wood and bone tools. Other organic commodities were synthesized as tools, including leather and vegetable fibers; however these have not been preserved to any great degree.

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Neolithic

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"New" Stone Age, was a period in the development of human technology that is traditionally the last part of the Stone Age. The Neolithic era follows the terminal Holocene Epipalaeolithic periods, beginning with the rise of farming, which produced the "Neolithic Revolution" and ending when metal tools became widespread in the Copper Age (chalcolithic) or Bronze Age or developing directly into the Iron Age, depending on geographical region. Neolithic man in Europe was in many respects much advanced over Paleolithic man. He had learned to cultivate the soil; he had learned to make pottery, to spin, and to weave; he had domesticated various wild animals; he built houses and constructed great earthen forts; and he buried his dead in such a manner--with " accompanying gifts "--as to show that he had come to believe in a future life.

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Nomadic- also known as nomads

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are communities of people that move from one place to another in the deserts or winter-climated places, rather than settling down in one location. People who move from place to place that are not in the desert or winter areas are called gypsies. Many cultures have been traditionally nomadic, but traditional nomadic behavior is increasingly rare in industrialized countries. There are three kinds of nomads, hunter-gatherers, pastoral nomads, and peripatetic nomads.Nomadic hunter-gatherers have by far the longest-lived subsistence method in human history, following seasonally available wild plants and game. Pastoralists raise herds and move with them so as not to deplete pasture beyond recovery in any one area. Peripatetic nomads are more common in industrialized nations, traveling from one territory to another and offering a trade wherever they go.

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Transhumant

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Transfer of livestock from one grazing ground to another, as from lowlands to highlands, with the changing of seasons.

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Sedentary

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communities or groups of people that stay and settle in one location because of their reliance on agriculture for their subsistence. Sedentary cultures provided the frame work for civilization in that they could provide for greater numbers of people than the nomadic way of wife. The growth in population gave these communities more complexity and thus required more organization.

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Egypt

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Kemet- The ????????recorded history starts with the unification of Upper and Lower ?????t c. 3150 BC, an event that sparked the beginning of ?????'s ancient civilization. A succession of thirty mostly native dynasties ruled for the next three millennia, during which ????? culture flourished and remained distinctively ????? in its religion, arts, language and customs.

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Nile

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Sustenance played a crucial role in the founding of Egyptian civilization. The ????? is an unending source of sustenance. The ????? made the land surrounding it extremely fertile when it flooded or was inundated annually. The Egyptians were able to cultivate wheat and crops around the ?????, providing food for the general population. Also, the ?????’s water attracted game such as water buffalo; and after the Persians introduced them in the 7th century BC, camels. These animals could be killed for meat, or could be captured, tamed and used for ploughing — or in the camels' case, travelling. Water was vital to both people and livestock. The ????? was also a convenient and efficient way of transportation for people and goods.

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Pyramids

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????? of Egypt, among the largest constructions ever built, [1] constitute one of the most potent and enduring symbols of Ancient Egyptian civilization. Most were built during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods[2].

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Mesopotamia

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?????ian history extends from the emergence of urban societies in Southern Iraq in the 4th millennium BC to the arrival of Alexander the Testicle in the 4th century BC (which is seen as the hallmark of the Hellenization of the Near East, therefore supposedly marking the "end" of ?????). A cultural continuity and spatial homogeneity for this entire historical geography ("the Great Tradition") is popularly assumed, though the assumption is problematic. ????? housed some of the world's most ancient states with highly developed social complexity.The geographical area watered the first literate societies developed in the late 4th millennium BC, using a highly sophisticated writing system in the context of the emergence of the first cities and complex state bureaucracies.In Early ????? (around mid 4th millennium BC) cuneiform script was invented. Cuneiform literally means "wedge-shaped", due to the triangular tip of the stylus used for impressing signs on wet clay. The standardized form of each cuneiform sign appear to have been developed from pictograms.

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Pharoah

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was the ancient Egyptian name for the office of kingship. The term began as a reference to the king's palace, but the meaning loosened over the course of Egyptian history until in the late period it was interchangeable with the Egyptian word for king. Such rulers were believed to be the incarnation of Horus.[1] The king of Egypt wore a double crown, created from the Red Crown of Lower Egypt and the White Crown of Upper Egypt. In battle, the pharaoh wore a blue crown of a different shape. All of these crowns were typically adorned by a uraeus, which was doubled under the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty.The ????? also wore a striped headcloth called the nemes, which may be the most familiar ?????onic headgear. The nemes was sometimes combined with the double crown, as it is on the statues of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel.The ????? would also wear a false beard made of goat hair during rituals and ceremonies

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New Kingdom

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is the period in ancient Egyptian history between the 16th century BCE and the 11th century BCE, covering the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth Dynasties of Egypt. The ????? (1570–1070 BCE) followed the Second Intermediate Period, and was succeeded by the Third Intermediate Period. Possibly as a result of the foreign rule of the Hyksos during the Second Intermediate Period, the ?????saw Egypt attempt to create a buffer between the Levant and Egypt, and attain its greatest territorial extent. It expanded far south into Nubia and held wide territories in the Near East. Egyptian armies fought Hittite armies for control of modern-day Syria.

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Ziggurat

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Notable examples of this structure include the Great ????? of Ur and Khorsabad in Mesopotamia. The Mesopotamian ????? were not places for public worship or ceremonies. They were believed to be dwelling places for the gods. Through the ????? the gods could be close to mankind and each city had its own patron god. Only priests were permitted on the ?????or in the rooms at its base and it was their responsibility to care for the gods and attend to their needs. The priests were very powerful members of Sumerian society.

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Gilgamesh

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according to the Sumerian king list, was the fifth king of Uruk (Early Dynastic II, first dynasty of Uruk), the son of Lugalbanda, ruling circa 2700 BC. He is also the central character in the ????? which says that his mother was Ninsun, (whom some call Rimat Ninsun), a goddess. ????? is described as two-thirds god and one-third human, making him one of the first superhuman characters in recorded history.According to another document, known as the "History of Tummal", v, and eventually his son Urlugal, rebuilt the sanctuary of the goddess Ninlil, located in Tummal, a block of the Nippur city. In Mesopotamian mythology, ????? is credited with having been a demigod of superhuman strength who built a great wall to defend his people from external threats.

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Cuneiform

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is one of the earliest known forms of written expression. Created by the Sumerians from ca. 3000 BC (with predecessors reaching into the late 4th millennium Uruk IV period, ????? writing began as a system of pictographs. Over time, the pictorial representations became simplified and more abstract.????? were written on clay tablets, on which symbols were drawn with a blunt reed called a stylus. The impressions left by the stylus were wedge shaped, thus giving rise to the name ????? ("wedge shaped").The Sumerian script was adapted for the writing of the Akkadian, Elamite, Hittite (and Luwian), Hurrian (and Urartian) languages, and it inspired the Old Persian and Ugaritic national alphabets

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Sumeria

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was the earliest known civilization of the ancient Near East, located in lower Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) or whose original home was most probably Transcaucasia[1] [2], from the time of the earliest records in the mid 4th millennium BC until the rise of Babylonia in the late 3rd millennium BC. The term "?????" applies to all speakers of the ????? language. ?????, together with Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley Civilization, is considered among the first settled societies in the world to have manifested all the features needed to qualify fully as a "civilization".

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Sargon

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was an Akkadian king famous for his conquest of the Sumerian city-states in the 24th and 23rd centuries BC. The founder of the Dynasty of Akkad, ????? reigned for 56 years, c. 2333 – 2279 BC. He became a prominent member of the royal court of Kish, ultimately overthrowing its king before embarking on the conquest of Mesopotamia. ????? vast empire is known to have extended from Elam to the Mediterranean sea, including Mesopotamia, parts of modern-day Iran and Syria, and possibly parts of Anatolia and the Arabian peninsula. He ruled from a new capital, Akkad (Agade), which the ????? king list claims he built, on the left bank of the Euphrates.[3] Sargon is regarded as one of the first individuals in recorded history to create a multiethnic, centrally ruled empire, and his dynasty controlled Mesopotamia for around a century and a half.[4]

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Hammurabi

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was the sixth king of Babylon. He became the first king of the Babylonian Empire, extending Babylon's control over Mesopotamia by winning a series of wars against neighboring kingdoms.????? is known for the set of laws called ????? Code, one of the first written codes of law in recorded history. Owing to his reputation in modern times as an ancient law-giver, ????? portrait is in many government buildings throughout the world. Although his empire controlled all of Mesopotamia by the time of his death, his successors were unable to maintain his empire.

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Thebes

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is the Greek designation of the ancient Egyptian niwt "(The) City" and niwt-rst "(The) Southern City". It is located about 800 km south of the Mediterranean, on the east bank of the river Nile. ????? was the capital of Waset, the fourth Upper Egyptian nome (the term "Waset" was used for the name of the city as well). The city was the capital of Egypt during part of the Eleventh Dynasty (Middle Kingdom), and most of the Eighteenth Dynasty (New Kingdom), though the administration probably remained located at Memphis for much of this. With the Nineteenth Dynasty the seat of government moved to the Delta. The archaeological remains of ???? offer a striking testimony to Egyptian civilization at its height.

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Hyksos

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were an Asiatic people, likely Semitic or Indo-Aryans, who invaded the eastern Nile Delta, initiating the Second Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt. They rose to power in the 17th century BC, (according to the traditional chronology) and ruled Lower and Middle Egypt for over 100 years, forming the Fifteenth and possibly the Sixteenth Dynasties of Egypt, (c. 1648–1540 BC).[1] This 108-year period follows the Turin Canon, which gives the six kings of the ????? 15th Dynasty a total reign length of 108 years.[2]Traditionally, only the six Fifteenth Dynasty rulers are called "?????". The ????? had Canaanite names, as seen in those which contain the names of Semitic deities such as Anath or Ba'al. They introduced new tools of warfare into Egypt, most notably the composite bow and the horse-drawn chariot.Some scholars, as early as Josephus, have associated the Semitic ????? with the ancient Hebrews, seeing their departure from Egypt as the story retold in the Exodus. Notably, Canaanite/Hebrew names occur among the ?????.

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Hatshepsut

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was the fifth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Ancient Egypt. She is generally regarded by Egyptologists as one of the most successful female pharaohs, reigning longer than any other woman of an indigenous Egyptian dynasty

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Ikhnaton

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- meaning Effective spirit of Aten, first known as Amenhotep IV (sometimes read as Amenophis IV and meaning Amun is Satisfied) before his first year, was a Pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt, especially notable for attempting to compel the Egyptian population to monotheistically worship the Aten. Although there are doubts as to how successful he was at this, it was the first known attempt at monotheism the world had seen. He was born to Amenhotep III and his Chief Queen Tiye and was their younger son. Akhenaten was not originally designated as the successor to the throne until the untimely death of his older brother, Thutmose.

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Ammon-Ra

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was the name of a deity, in Egyptian mythology, who gradually rose to become one of the most important deities in Ancient Egypt, before fading into obscurity. ?????rapidly became identified with the chief God that was worshipped in other areas, Ra-Herakhty, the merged identities of Ra, and Horus. This identification led to a merger of identities, with Amun becoming ?????. As Ra had been the father of Shu, and Tefnut, and the remainder of the Ennead, so ?????was likewise identified as their father.

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Hieroglyphics

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was a writing system used by the ancient Egyptians that contained a combination of logographic and alphabetic elements. Cartouches were also used by the Egyptians. Egyptians used cursive hieroglyphs, not to be confused with hieratic, for religious literature on papyrus and wood.

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Babylon

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was a city of ancient Mesopotamia, the ruins of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province; Iraq about 80km south of Baghdad. It was the "holy city" of Babylonia from around 2300 BC, and the seat of the Neo-Babylonian Empire from 612 BC. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.The form Babylon is the Greek variant of Akkadian Babilu. In the Bible, the name appears as בבל (Babel), interpreted by Genesis 11:9 to mean "confusion", from the verb balal, "to confuse".

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Memphis

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????? was the ancient capital of the first nome of Lower Egypt, and of the Old Kingdom of Egypt from its foundation until around 2200 BC and later for shorter periods during the New Kingdom[1], and an administrative centre throughout ancient history[2][3]. Its Ancient Egyptian name was Ineb Hedj ("The White Walls"). The name "?????" is the Greek deformation of the Egyptian name of Pepi I's (6th dynasty) pyramid, Men-nefer[4], which became Menfe in Coptic. The modern cities and towns of Mit Rahina, Dahshur, Saqqara, Abusir, Abu Gorab, and Zawyet el'Aryan, south of Cairo, all lie within the administrative borders of historical ?????. ????? was also known in Ancient Egypt as Ankh Tawy ("That which binds the Two Lands"), thus stressing the strategic position of the city between Upper and Lower Egypt. the ruins of ????? are 20 km (12 miles) south of Cairo, on the west bank of the Nile.According to Herodotus[5], the city was founded around 3100 BC by Menes, who united the two kingdoms of Egypt

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Hittites

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were an ancient people from Kaneš who spoke an Indo-European language, and established a kingdom centered at Hattusa (?????URUḪattuša) in north-central Anatolia from the 18th century BC. In the 14th century BC, the ????? empire was at its height, encompassing Anatolia, north-western Syria about as far south as the mouth of the Litani River (a territory known as Amqu), and eastward into upper Mesopotamia. After 1180 BC, the empire disintegrated into several independent "Neo-?????" city-states, some surviving until as late as the 8th century BC.

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Assyrians

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In the Middle Bronze Age Assyria was a region on the Upper Tigris river, named for its original capital, the ancient city of Assur. Later, as a nation and empire that came to control all of the Fertile Crescent, Egypt and much of Anatolia, the term "????? proper" referred to roughly the northern half of Mesopotamia (the southern half being Babylonia), with Nineveh as its capital.The ????? kings controlled a large kingdom at three different times in history. These are called the Old (20th to 15th c. BC), Middle (15th to 10th c. BC), and Neo-????? (911-612 B.C.) kingdoms, or periods, of which the last is the most well known and best documented.The ????? homeland was located near a mountainous region, extending along the Tigris as far as the high Gordiaean or Carduchian mountain range of Armenia, sometimes known as the "Mountains of Ashur". ????? invented excavation to undermine city walls, battering rams to knock down walls and gates, concept of a corps of engineers, who bridged rivers with pontoons or provided soldiers with inflatable skins for swimming.

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Chaldeans

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The term Neo-Babylonian or ????? refers to Babylonia under the rule of the 11th ("????? ") dynasty, from the revolt of Nabopolassar in 626 BC until the invasion of Cyrus the Great in 539 BC, notably including the reign of Nebuchadnezzar. Through the centuries of Assyrian domination, Babylonia enjoyed a prominent status, and revolted at the slightest indication that it did not. However, the Assyrians always managed to restore Babylonian loyalty, whether through granting of increased privileges, or militarily. That finally changed in 627 BC with the death of the last strong Assyrian ruler, Ashurbanipal, and Babylonia rebelled under Nabopolassar the ????? the following year. With help from the Medes, Nineveh was sacked in 612, and the seat of empire was again transferred to Babylonia.

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Medes

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were an ancient Iranian people, who lived in the north, western, and northwestern portions of present-day Iran, and roughly the areas of present day Kurdistan, Hamedan, Tehran, Azarbaijan, north of Esfahan and Zanjan. This abode of the ????? was known in Greek as Media or Medea. They entered this region in the second millennium BC. By the 6th century BC, the ????? were able to establish an empire that stretched from southern shore of the Black Sea and Aran province (the modern-day Republic of Azerbaijan) to north and Central Asia and Afghanistan, and which included many tributary states, including the Persians, which eventually supplanted and absorbed the Median empire in the Achaemenid Persian Empire.The ????? are credited with the foundation of the first Iranian empire, the largest of its day until Cyrus the Great established a unified Iranian empire of the ????? and Persians, often referred to as the Achaemenid Persian Empire, by defeating his grandfather and overlord, Astyages the shah of Media.Scholars and historians generally believe that the ????? are the ancestors of modern Kurds that live in the mountainous region in Iran, Iraq, Syria and Turkey and were one of many Iranic tribes that composed a new Kurdish ethnic pool over 2,000 years ago.

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Persians

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was a series of historical empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the old Persian homeland, and beyond in Western Asia, Central Asia and the Caucasus. The Persian empire has become what we know today as Persia or more commonly, Iran.The most widespread entity considered to have been a ????? Empire was the Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC) — famous in antiquity as the foe of the classical Greek states (See Greco-Persian_Wars) under Darius and Xerxes (or Xerkes)— a united Iranian kingdom that originated in the region now known as Pars province of Iran.It was formed under Cyrus the Great, who overthrew the empire of the Medes, and conquered much of the Middle East, including the territories of the Babylonians, the Phoenicians, and the Lydians. Cyrus' son, Cambyses, continued Cyrus' conquests by conquering Egypt.Most of the successive states in Greater Iran prior to March 1935 are collectively called the ????? Empire by Western historians.Virtually all the successor empires of ????? were major regional and some major international powers in their day.

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Cyrus

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(c. 590 BC or 576 — August 530 BC), was the founder of the Persian Empire under the Achaemenid dynasty. As leader of the Persian people in Anshan, he conquered the Medes and unified the two separate Iranian kingdoms; as the king of Persia, he reigned over the new empire from 559 BC until 561. The empire expanded under his rule, eventually conquering most of Southwest Asia and much of Central Asia, from Egypt and Hellespont in the west to the Indus River in the east, to create the largest state the world had yet seen. During his twenty-nine year reign, ?????fought against some of the greatest states of the early Classical period, including the Median Empire, the Lydian Empire, and the Neo-Babylonian Empire. ????? did not venture into Egypt, as he himself died in battle, fighting the Massagetae along the Syr Darya in August 530 BC. He was succeeded by his son, Cambyses II, who managed to conquer Egypt during his short rule.????? is the first Persian king whose name was suffixed with the word "Great", a titulary style adopted by his Achaemenid successors including Darius the Great, Xerxes the Great, et al. Beyond his nation, ????? left a lasting legacy on religion, politics, and military strategy, as well as on both Eastern and Western civilization.

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Satraps

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-was the name given to the governors of the provinces of ancient Median and Persian empires, including the Achaemenid Empire and in several of their heirs, such as the Sassanid Empire and the Hellenistic empires.

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Zoroastrianism

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the religion and philosophy based on the teachings ascribed to the prophet Zoroaster. Mazdaism is the religion that acknowledges the divine authority of Ahura Mazda, proclaimed by Zoroaster to be the one uncreated Creator of all (God).As demonstrated by Zoroastrian creed and articles of faith, the two terms are effectively synonymous. In a declaration of the creed — the Fravarānē — the adherent states: "…I profess myself a devotee of Mazda, a follower of Zarathustra." While Zoroastrianism was once the dominant religion of much of Greater Iran, the number of adherents has dwindled to not more than 200,000 worldwide, with concentrations in India and Iran.

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Darius

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was the son of Hystaspes, and king of Persia from 522 BC to 486/485 BC. Having ascended to power amidst a controversy and bloodshed that claimed the lives of two sons of Cyrus the Great, Darius I's reign was marked by revolt; twice Babylonia revolted, three times Susiana, and Ionian revolt precipitated several ill-fated Persian expeditions against Greece, including a defeat at Marathon. Darius subjugated the nations of the Pontic and Armenian mountains, and extended Persian dominion to the Caucasus; for the same reasons he fought against the Saka and other Iranian steppe tribes, as well as the Turanians from beyond the Oxus. In the process of these campaigns he made military reforms such as introducing conscription, pay for soldiers, military training and he also made changes in the army and navy.

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Xerxes

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was a king of Persia (reigned 485 BC–465 BC) of the Achaemenid dynasty. Xerxes was son of Darius I and Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus the Great. After his accession in October 485 BC he suppressed the revolts in Egypt and Babylon that had broken out in 486 BC and appointed his brother Achaemenes as governor or satrap over Egypt (Old Persian: khshathrapavan), bringing Egypt under very strict rule. His predecessors, especially Darius, had not been successful in their attempts to conciliate the ancient civilizations. This probably was the reason why Xerxes in 484 BC took away from Babylon the golden statue of Bel (Marduk, Merodach), the hands of which the legitimate king of Babylon had to seize on the first day of each year, and killed the priest who tried to hinder him. Therefore Xerxes does not bear the title of King in the Babylonian documents dated from his reign, but King of Persia and Media or simply King of countries (i.e. of the world). This proceeding led to two rebellions, probably in 484 BC and 479 BC.

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Indus

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c. 3300–1700 BCE, flourished 2600–1900 BCE, was an ancient civilization that flourished in the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys primarily in what is now Pakistan and western India, parts of Afghanistan and Turkmenistan. Another name for this civilization is the Harappan Civilization, after the first of its cities to be excavated, Harappa. Although the IVC might have been known to the Sumerians as Meluhha, the modern world discovered it only in the 1920s as a result of archaeological excavations. The IVC is a likely candidate for a Proto-Dravidian culture. The civilization is sometimes referred to as the Indus Ghaggar-Hakra civilization or the Indus-Saraswati civilization. The appellation Indus-Saraswati is based on the possible identification of the Ghaggar-Hakra River with the ancient Saraswati river of the Rig Veda, but this usage is disputed.

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Harappa

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The ancient city existed from about 3300 BCE until 1600 BCE and is believed to have had as many as 40,000 residents—considered large for its time. Although the ????? Culture extended well beyond the bounds of present day Pakistan, its centres were in Sindh and the Punjab. Indus Valley civilization was mainly an urban culture sustained by surplus agricultural production and commerce, the latter including trade with Sumer in southern Mesopotamia. Both Mohenjo-daro and ????? were built according to similar plans of well-laid-out streets, "differentiated living quarters, flat-roofed brick houses, and fortified administrative or religious centers" Weights and measures were standardized throughout the area and distinctive seals were used for identification of property and shipment of goods. Although copper and bronze were in use, iron was unknown. "Cotton was woven and dyed for clothing; wheat, rice, and a variety of vegetables and fruits were cultivated; and a number of animals, including the humped bull, were domesticated." [4] Wheel-made pottery—some of it adorned with animal and geometric motifs—has been found in profusion at all the major Indus sites. A centralized administration has been inferred from the revealed cultural uniformity; however, it remains uncertain whether authority lay with a priestly or a commercial oligarchy. Had a Writing system.

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Sanskrit

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is a classical language of India, a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism, and one of the 23 official languages of India. It has the same status in Nepal as well. The oldest surviving ????? grammar is Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī dating to circa the 5th century BC.

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Caste

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describes the social stratification and social restrictions in the Indian Subcontinent, in which social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous, hereditary groups often termed as jātis or sub-?????. Within a jāti there exist exogamous groups known as gotras, the lineage or clan of a person, although in a handful of sub-castes like Shakadvipi endogamy within a gotra is permitted and alternative mechanisms of restricting endogamy are used.Although generally identified with Hinduism, the ????? system was also observed among followers of other religions in the Indian subcontinent, including some groups of Muslims and Christians. The Indian Constitution has Constitutionally outlawed ?????-based discrimination, in keeping with the socialist, secular, democratic principles that founded the nation.

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Indo-Europeans

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comprise a family of several hundred related languages and dialects, including most of the major languages of Europe, the northern Indian subcontinent (South Asia), the Iranian plateau (Southwest Asia), and much of Central Asia. ?????(I?----? refers to the Indian subcontinent) has the largest numbers of speakers of the recognised families of languages in the world today, with its languages spoken by approximately three billion native speakers.

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Hinduism

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is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. In contemporary usage ????? is also sometimes referred to as Sanātana Dharma, a Sanskrit phrase meaning "eternal law". ?????, many of whose origins can be traced to the ancient Vedic civilization, is one of the world's oldest extant religions. A conglomerate of diverse beliefs and traditions, ????? has no single founder.

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Jainism/Jinas

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traditionally known as ?????Dharma (जैन धर्म), is an independent religion, one of the oldest religions in the world. It is an Indian religion and philosophy originating in Ancient India. The ????? follow the teachings of the 24 ????? (conquerors) who are also known as Tirthankaras. The 24th Tirthankara, Lord Mahavira lived in ca. 6th century BC. Jains are not a part of the Vedic Religion (Hinduism).Ancient India had two philosophical streams of thought: The nastika Religions, represented by ????? and Buddhism; and the Vedic Astika Religion (Hinduism). Both streams have existed side by side for many thousands of years, influencing each other and in turn being influenced by each other. The pervasive influence of ????? culture and philosophy in ancient Bihar possibly gave rise to Buddhism.

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Maurya-

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(322–185 BCE, ruled by the Mauryan dynasty, was the largest and most powerful political and military empire of ancient India.Originating from the kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic plains (modern Bihar and Bengal) in the eastern side of the sub-continent, the empire had its capital city at Pataliputra (near modern Patna). The Empire was founded in 322 BCE by Chandragupta Maurya, who had overthrown the Nanda Dynasty and began rapidly expanding his power westwards across central and western India taking opportunistic advantage of the disuptions of local powers in the wake of the withdrawal westward by Alexander the Great's Macedonian and Persian armies. By 316 BCE the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conquering the satraps left by Alexander.

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Asoka

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(304 BC – 232 BC) was an Indian emperor, of the Maurya Dynasty who ruled from from 273 BC to 232 BC. Often cited as one of India's greatest emperors, Ashoka reigned over most of present-day India after a number of military conquests. His empire stretched from present-day Afghanistan and parts of Persia in the west, to the present-day Bengal and Assam states of India in the east, and as far south as Mysore state. His reign was headquartered in Magadha (present-day Bihar state of India). He embraced Buddhism from the prevalent Vedic tradition after witnessing the mass deaths of the war of Kalinga, which he himself had waged. He was later dedicated in the propagation of Buddhism across Asia and established monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Gautama Buddha.

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Yellow River

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Chinese civilization originated with city-states in the Yellow River valley.

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Shang-

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is the first historic Chinese dynasty and ruled in the northeastern region of the area known as "China proper", in the Yellow River valley. The Shāng Dynasty followed the quasi-legendary Xià Dynasty and preceded the Zhōu Dynasty. Information about the Shang Dynasty comes from historical records of the Zhou Dynasty, the Han Dynasty Shiji by Sima Qian and from Shang inscriptions on bronze artifacts and oracle bones—turtle shells, cattle scapula or other bones on which were written the first significant corpus of recorded Chinese characters. The oracle bone inscriptions, which date to the latter half of the dynasty, typically recorded the date in the Sexagenary cycle of the Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches, followed by the name of the diviner and the topic being divined about. An interpretation of the answer (prognostication) and whether the divination later proved correct were sometimes also added. Present-day Chinese culture can be tracked to this early dynasty.These divinations can be gleaned for information on the politics, economy, culture, religion, geography, astronomy, calendar, art and medicine of the period, and as such provide critical insight into the early stages of the Chinese civilization. One site of the Shang capitals, later historically called the Ruins of Yin , is near modern day Anyang. Archaeological work there uncovered 11 major Yin royal tombs and the foundations of palace and ritual sites, containing weapons of war and human as well as animal sacrifices. Tens of thousands of bronze, jade, stone, bone and ceramic artifacts have been obtained; the workmanship on the bronzes attests to a high level of civilization. In terms of inscribed oracle bones alone, more than 20,000 were discovered in the initial scientific excavations in the 1920s to 1930s, and many more have since been found.

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Zhou (Chou)

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preceded by the Shang Dynasty and followed by the Qin Dynasty in China. The Zhou dynasty lasted longer than any other in Chinese history--though the actual political and military control of China by the dynasty only lasted during the Western Zhou. During the Zhou, the use of iron was introduced to China, while this period of Chinese history produced what many consider the zenith of Chinese bronze-ware making. The dynasty also spans the period in which the written script evolved from the ancient stage as seen in early Western Zhou bronze inscriptions, to the beginnings of the modern stage, in the form of the archaic clerical script of the late Warring States period.During the Zhou Dynasty, the origins of matured Chinese philosophy developed, its initial stages beginning in the 6th century BC. The greatest Chinese philosophers, those who made the greatest impact on later generations of Chinese, were Kong Fuzi (Latin: Confucius), founder of Confucianism, and Laozi, founder of Daoism. Other philosophers, theorists, and schools of thought in this era were Mozi (Latin: Micius), founder of Mohism, Mengzi (Latin: Mencius), a famous Confucian who expanded upon Kong Fuzi's legacy, and Shang Yang and Han Feizi, responsible for the development of ancient Chinese Legalism (the core philosophy of the Qin Dynasty). In an age of intellectual sophistication, Chinese philosophy of this period has been often compared to its contemporary in ancient Greece.

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Confucius

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was an esteemed Chinese thinker and social philosopher, whose teachings and philosophy have deeply influenced Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese thought and life.His philosophy emphasised personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and sincerity. These values gained prominence in China over other doctrines, such as Legalism or Taoism during the Han Dynasty. Confucius' thoughts have been developed into a system of philosophy known as Confucianism. It was introduced to Europe by the Jesuit Matteo Ricci, who was the first to Latinise the name as "Confucius" .

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Mencius

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was a Chinese philosopher who was arguably the most famous Confucian after Confucius himself. He was an itinerant Chinese philosopher and sage, and one of the principal interpreters of Confucianism. Supposedly, he was a pupil of Confucius' grandson, Zisi. Like Confucius, according to legend, he travelled China for forty years to offer advice to rulers for reform.[5] He served as an official during the Warring States Period (403–221 BCE) in the State of Qi ; pinyin: qí; 1046 BC to 221 BC) from 319 to 312 BCE. He expressed his filial devotion when he took an absence of three years from his official duties for Qi to mourn his mother's death. Disappointed at his failure to effect changes in his contemporary world, he retired from public life. Mencius' interpretation of Confucianism has generally been considered the orthodox version by subsequent Chinese philosophers, especially the Neo-Confucians of the Song dynasty. The Mencius a book of his conversations with kings of the time, is one of the Four Books that Zhu Xi grouped as the core of orthodox Neo-Confucian thought. In contrast to the sayings of Confucius which are short and self-contained, the Mencius consists of long dialogues, including arguments, with extensive prose.

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Lao-Tzu

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was a philosopher of ancient China and an important figure in Taoism (also called Daoism). Laozi literally means "Old Master" and is generally considered an honorific. According to Chinese tradition, Laozi lived in the 6th century BC. Many historians contend that Laozi actually lived in the 4th century BC, concurrent with the Hundred Schools of Thought and Warring States Period, while others claim he is not a historical figure.[1] Laozi was credited with writing the central Taoist work the Daodejing (also called the Tao Te Ching), which was originally known simply by his name. Taishang Laojun is a title for Laozi in the Taoist religion, which refers to him as "One of the Three Pure Ones".

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Sun-Tzu

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is an honorific title bestowed upon Sūn Wǔ (孫武; c. 544 BC – 496 BC), the author of The Art of War, an immensely influential ancient Chinese book on military strategy. He is also one of the earliest realists in international relations theory.In the author's name, Sūn Wǔ, the character wu, meaning "military", is the same as the character in wu shu, or martial art. a general who lived in the state of Wu in the 6th century BC, and therefore a contemporary of one of the great Chinese thinkers of ancient times—Confucius. According to tradition, Sun Tzu was a member of the shi. The shi were landless Chinese aristocrats who were descendants of nobility who lost their dukedoms during the territorial consolidation of the Spring and Autumn Period. Unlike most shi, who were traveling academics, Sun Tzu worked as a mercenary (similar to a modern military consultant). According to tradition, King Helü of Wu hired Sun Tzu as a general approximately 512 BC after finishing his military famous treatise. What is now known as the The Art of War was entitled Sun Tzu; naming a work after the author was common in China prior to the Qin era. After his hiring the kingdom of Wu, which had previously been considered a semi-barbaric state, went on to become the most powerful state of the period by conquering Chu, one of the most powerful states in the Spring and Autumn Period. Sun Tzu, always wanting a peaceful and quiet life, suddenly disappeared when King Helu finally conquered Chu. As a result, his exact date of death remains unknown.

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Chin-

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was preceded by the feudal Zhou Dynasty and followed by the Han Dynasty in China. The unification of China in 221 BC under the First Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi (or Shih Hwang-Tih) marked the beginning of Imperial China, a period which lasted until the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1912. The Qin Dynasty left a legacy of a centralized and bureaucratic state that would be carried onto successive dynasties. At the height of its power, the Qin Dynasty had a population of about 40 million people.






-He- was a Chinese mariner, explorer, diplomat and fleet admiral, who made the voyages collectively referred to as the travels of "Eunuch Sanbao to the Western Ocean"or "Zheng He to the Western Ocean", from 1405 to 1433 .

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Han-The Han Dynasty

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was ruled by the prominent family known as the Liu (劉) clan. The reign of the ?????Dynasty, lasting over 400 years, is commonly considered within China to be one of the greatest periods in the history of China. To this day, the ethnic majority of China still refer to themselves as "People of the ?????."During the ?????Dynasty, China officially became a Confucian state and prospered domestically: agriculture, handicrafts and commerce flourished, and the population reached over 55 million. Meanwhile, the empire extended its political and cultural influence over Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam, Japan, and Central Asia before it finally collapsed under a combination of domestic and external pressures. he ?????Dynasty was notable also for its military prowess. The empire expanded westward as far as the rim of the Tarim Basin (in modern Xinjiang-Uyghur Autonomous Region), making possible relatively secure caravan traffic across Central Asia. The paths of caravan traffic are often called the "Silk Road" because the route was used to export Chinese silk. Chinese armies also invaded and annexed parts of northern Korea (Wiman Joseon) and northern Vietnam toward the end of the 2nd century BC. ????? Dynasty control of peripheral regions was generally insecure, however. To ensure peace with non-Chinese local powers, the ????? court developed a mutually beneficial "tributary system." Non-Chinese states were allowed to remain autonomous in exchange for symbolic acceptance of ?????overlordship. Tributary ties were confirmed and strengthened through intermarriages at the ruling level and periodic exchanges of gifts and goods.

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Dynastic Cycle-

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According to Chinese political theory, every dynasty goes through a dynastic cycle:
1.A new ruler unites China and founds a new dynasty.

2.China, under the new dynasty, achieves prosperity and a new golden age.

3.The royal family of the dynasty begins to decay, corruption becomes rampant in the imperial court, and the empire begins to enter decline and instability.

4. The dynasty loses the Mandate of Heaven, their legitimacy to rule, and is overthrown by a rebellion. The mandate is then passed to the next dynasty and the process starts over.

Chinese historians connected the cycle to the five elements of Chinese philosophy, with each dynasty identified with a specific element.

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Ganges-

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is a major river in the Indian subcontinent flowing east through the eponymous plains of northern India into Bangladesh. The 2,510 km (1,557 mi) long river begins at the Gangotri Glacier in the Indian state of Uttarakhand in the central Himalayas and drains into the Bay of Bengal through its vast delta in the Sunderbans. It is held sacred by Hindus and is worshipped in its personified form as the goddess Ganga. The Ganga is mentioned in the Rig-Veda, the earliest of the Hindu scriptures. The Ganga is mentioned in the nadistuti (Rig Veda 10.75), which lists the rivers from east to west. In RV 6.45.31, the word Ganga is also mentioned, but it is not clear if the reference is to the river.According to Hindus the river Ganga (feminine) is sacred. It is worshipped by Hindus and personified as a goddess, who holds an important place in the Hindu religion . Hindu belief holds that bathing in the river on certain occasions causes the forgiveness of sins and helps attain salvation. Many people believe that this will come from bathing in Ganga at any time. Hindus also believe life is incomplete without bathing in the Ganga at least once in their lifetime.

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Zheng

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He- was a Chinese mariner, explorer, diplomat and fleet admiral, who made the voyages collectively referred to as the travels of "Eunuch Sanbao to the Western Ocean"or "Zheng He to the Western Ocean", from 1405 to 1433 .

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Sumerian Contributions

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wheel, number system based on 60, geometric formulas, city-state political organizations