Week Vii: Diencephalon, Cortex

Front 1

Name the 3 parts of the diencephalon

Back 1

1. thalamus
2. hypothalamus
3. epithalamus

Front 2

what structure blocks the lateral growth of the thalamus during embryological development?

Back 2

the internal capsule

Front 3

What makes up the rostral boundary of the hypothalamus?

Back 3

the lamina terminalis

Front 4

What makes up the medial boundary of the hypothalamus?

Back 4

the IIIrd ventricle

Front 5

What makes up the inferior surface of the hypothalamus?

Back 5

the floor of the IIIrd ventricle

Front 6

What makes up the superior border of the hypothalamus?

Back 6

The hypothalamic sulcus

Front 7

What makes up the posterior border of the hypothalamus?

Back 7

The beginning of the cerebral aqueduct

Front 8

what structure divides the hypothalamus into the medial and lateral zones?

Back 8

The fornix

Front 9

Where is the medial forebrain bundle found and where does it run?

Back 9

found in the lateral region of the hypothalamus. It runs between the forebrain and the reticular formation (it is bidirectional)

Front 10

What are the 3 zones of the medial region of the hypothalamus?

Back 10

1. pre-optic/supra-optic
2. Tuberal
3. Mammillary

Front 11

What is the function of the pre-optic and supra-optic regions?

Back 11

project to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland to release AHD and Oxytocin

Front 12

What nucleus is found in the tuberal zone?

Back 12

The arcuate nucleus - contains neurons that release hypothalamic releasing factors (these factors influence the anterior pituitary)

Front 13

The main function of the tuberal zone, then, is _____________.

Back 13

endocrine

Front 14

The dorsomedial and ventromedial nuclei of the tuberal zone play a role in _____________.

Back 14

regulation of appetite

Front 15

What is a major characteristic of the mammillary zone?

Back 15

Major location where efferent pathways leave the hypothalamus

Front 16

What are the 3 efferent pathways that leave the hypothalamus via the mammillary zone? Where does each run to?

Back 16

1. mammillothalamic - to anterior thalamic nucleus
2. mammillotegmental - to midbrain reticular formation
3. dorsal longitudinal fasciculus - to brainstem reticular formation and spinal cord.

Front 17

What is the autonomic function of the anterior hypothalamus?

Back 17

parasympathetic functions; also heat disposal (sweating).

Front 18

What is the autonomic function of the posterior hypothalamus?

Back 18

sympathetic functions; also heat retention (shivering)

Front 19

Hypothalamic nuclei influence the 4 F's: what are these? What system influences the 4 F's?

Back 19

Feeding, Fighting, Fleeing, Fornication
The limbic system

Front 20

What other connections does the hypothalamus have with the limbic system?

Back 20

amygdala
ant. and dorsomedial nuclei of thalamus

Front 21

Which structure makes up the medial boundary of the thalamus?

Back 21

The IIIrd ventricle

Front 22

Which structure makes up the lateral boundary of the thalamus?

Back 22

PLIC

Front 23

Which structure makes up the superior boundary of the thalamus?

Back 23

transverse cerebral fissure (subarachnoid space between corpus callosum and thalamus)

Front 24

Which structure makes up the inferior boundary of the thalamus?

Back 24

the hypothalamus and hypothalamic sulcus

Front 25

The structure that splits the thalamus into 4 groups groups of nuclei is ___________?

Back 25

the internal medullary lamina

Front 26

What is the thalamic reticular coat?

Back 26

a surrounding structure that overlies the lateral and anterior thalamus (aka. the reticular nucleus)

Front 27

The thalamus sends out 4 types of radiations - name them

Back 27

1. anterior
2. Superior
3. Posterior
4. Inferior

Front 28

Regarding the anterior thalamic radiations:
1. Where do they begin
2. Run in what structure
3. Where do they project?

Back 28

1. start in anterior and medial thalamic groups
2. run in ALIC
3. project to frontal lobe

Front 29

Regarding superior thalamic radiations:
1. Where do they begin
2. Run in what structure
3. Where do they project

Back 29

1. start in VPL, VPM, VL
2. run in PLIC
3. project to sensorimotor strip (areas 1, 2, 3, 4, 6)

Front 30

Regarding posterior thalamic radiations?
1. Where do they begin
2. Run in which structure
3. where do they project

Back 30

1. start in LGN, Pulvinar
2. run via optic radiations
3. project to area 17; occipital lobe

Front 31

Regarding Inferior thalamic radiations:
1. where do they begin?
2. run in which structure
3. project to where?

Back 31

1. MGN
2. run in auditory radiations
3. project to temporal lobe and insular cortex, Area 41

Front 32

What is meant by the fact that VPM and VPL have "reciprocal connections?"

Back 32

VPM & VPL project to somesthetic strip (areas 1,2,3). If you knock out VPL and VPM: cortical neurons will die. If you knock out the somesthetic strip: neurons in VPM and VPL die.

Front 33

Pulvinar:
1. Inputs?
2. Outputs?

Back 33

1. areas 18, 19
2. inferior parietal lobe

Front 34

Dorsomedial Nucleus:
1. Inputs?
2. Outputs?

Back 34

1. Amygdaloid complex, temporal neocortex
2. Prefrontal Cortex

Front 35

Anterior Nuclei:
1. Inputs?
2. Outputs?

Back 35

1. mammillothalamic tract (from hypothalamus), fornix
2. Cingulate gyrus

Front 36

VA:
1. Inputs?
2. Outputs?

Back 36

1. Globus Pallidus
Substantia Nigra
2. Frontal Cortex (Area 6)

Front 37

VL:
1. Inputs?
2. Outputs?

Back 37

1. Globus Pallidus
Substantia Nigra
Dentate Nucleus (from cerebellum)
2. Area 4 (Motor Cortex)

Front 38

VPL:
1. Inputs?
2. Outputs?

Back 38

1. Medial Lemniscus
Spinothalamic tracts
2. Areas 1, 2, 3 - sensory cortex

Front 39

VPM:
1. Inputs?
2. Outputs?

Back 39

1. Trigeminothalamic nucleus
2. Areas 1,2,3 - sensory cortex

Front 40

LD Output?
LP Output?

Back 40

To Caudate Nucleus
To Superior parietal lobe

Front 41

LGN:
1. Inputs?
2. Outputs?

Back 41

1. Optic Tract
2. Optic Radiations to Area 17

Front 42

MGN:
1. Inputs?
2. Outputs?

Back 42

1. Inferior colliculus, lateral lemniscus
2. Auditory Radiations to Areas 41, 42

Front 43

Branches of the internal carotid supply which portion of the thalamus?

Back 43

The anterior nuclear group

Front 44

What is the blood supply to anteromedial aspect of the thalamus?

Back 44

Posteromedial striatal arteries (aka. thalamoperforant arteries): branches from PCmA

Front 45

What is the blood supply to VPM, VPL, LGN, MGN?

Back 45

posterolateral striatal arteries (aka. thalamogeniculate arteries): branches of the PCA

Front 46

the _____cortex covers the cerebral hemispheres; it has six distinct cellular layers

Back 46

neocortex

Front 47

the ______cortex is also known as the hippocampus; it has four cellular layers

Back 47

Archicortex

Front 48

the _____cortex is found on the ventral surface of the cortex and the parahippocampal gyrus; it has three cellular layers

Back 48

Paleocortex

Front 49

There are three basic types of neurons in the cerebral cortex. Name them.

Back 49

1. Projection Neurons
2. Association Neurons
3. Commissural neurons

Front 50

Elaborate on projection neurons

Back 50

send axons to areas of the CNS that lie outside of the cortex

Front 51

Elaborate: association neurons

Back 51

connect cortical regions to the same hemisphere

Front 52

Elaborate: commissural neurons

Back 52

connect cortical regions to the contralateral hemisphere

Front 53

General rule: projection fibers arise from _________, while association and commissural fibers arise from _________.

Back 53

deep neocortex
superficial cortex

Front 54

What are the largest and most prominent neurons in the cortex?
What type of fibers do they give rise to?

Back 54

*pyramidal neurons
*association fibers or projection fibers

Front 55

What characterizes a stellate nueron and where are these neurons found?

Back 55

Stellate neurons have extensive dendrites projecting from all directions of the cell body. THey are found in layer IV (internal granular)

Front 56

Where are fusiform neurons found?
What type of nerve fibers do they form?

Back 56

In the deepest cortical layers.
They form projection fibers

Front 57

What are the Horizontal Cells of Cajal AND the Cells of Martinitti?

Back 57

Other types of neurons found in the cortex

Front 58

In general: cortical efferent fibers originate in layer (lamina) _____, while thalamic projections originate in ____.

Back 58

cortical efferent fibers - lamina VI
Thalamic projections - lamina V

Front 59

List the cellular Cortical layers from superficial to deep.

Back 59

I. Molecular
II. External granular layer
III.External pyramidal layer
IV. Internal granular layer
V. Internal pyramidal layer
VI. Fusiform layer

Front 60

The molecular layer contains mainly _________ fibers.

Back 60

horizontal

Front 61

The external granular layer is comprised of _________.

Back 61

small densely packed granule cells

Front 62

What is notable about layer III?

Back 62

This is a very prominent layer and consists of pyramidal neurons arranged in two sub-layers.

Front 63

The two sub layers of the external pyramidal layer are made up of ________ and _______.

Back 63

outer layer - medium sized neurons
inner layer - larger pyramidal cells

Front 64

The external pyramidal layer (III) gives rise to what type of fibers?

Back 64

Association and commissural fibers.

Front 65

What makes up the internal granular layer (IV)?

Back 65

densely packed stellate neurons and bands of Baillarger (horizontal fiber layer)

Front 66

What makes up the internal pyramidal layer (V)

Back 66

pyramidal neurons, granule neurons, neurons of Martinotti, and internal band of Baillarger.

Front 67

Which type of fibers does the internal pyramidal layer (V) give rise to?

Back 67

projection fibers

Front 68

What makes up the fusiform layer (VI)

Back 68

small fusiform nuerons with dendrites that project to other cortical layers.

Front 69

The fusiform layer gives rise to what type of fibers?

Back 69

Projection fibers

Front 70

What is characteristic of visual cortex nerve firing patterns?

Back 70

The visual cortex has functional columnar units - the whole column fires at once.

Front 71

Radial fibers project from _______ to ________.

Back 71

from inside to out. (medullary region to cortex)

Front 72

Tangential fibers project ________, parallel with the _________.

Back 72

horizontally, parallel with the cortical surface.

Front 73

List the three basic types of circuits in the neocortex.

Back 73

1. point to point
2. local
3. divergent

Front 74

Point to point circuits are major __________ and _________ pathways such as the __________ (2 categories)

Back 74

afferent and efferent
cortico-cortical circuits
Thalamo-cortical circuits

Front 75

Are point to point circuits (+) or (-)?

Back 75

(+)

Front 76

Point to point circuits are well suited to transfer what type of informations?

Back 76

precise, topographically organized information

Front 77

Are local circuits (+) or (-)

Back 77

(-) or (+) (although there is more (-) than (+)).

Front 78

Inhibitory local circuits use __________ as a neurotransmitter.

Back 78

GABA

Front 79

Divergent circuits use ___________ as a neurotransmitter.

Back 79

Monoamines

Front 80

Divergent circuits are well suited for __________________.

Back 80

activites that involve cohesive activity of large areas of neocortex such as attention, arousal, mood.

Front 81

Cortico-cortico projections connect _______________. Example?

Back 81

cortices within hemispheres. Ie. frontal cortex with visual cortex

Front 82

Commissural Cortical Fibers connect ________________.

Back 82

the hemispheres via the anterior and posterior commissures or the corpus callosum

Front 83

There are two anatomical differences between the R and L hemispheres of the brain. What are they?

Back 83

1. L tempo-parietal cortex has more tissue
2. L lateral fissure is longer (at a shallower angle)

Front 84

1. The use of sodium amytal in the early days?
2. What kind of a drug is sodium amytal?

Back 84

1. injected into internal carotid to find out hemispheral dominance (it temporarily "paralyzes" neurons in that area.
2. barbituate

Front 85

What is the result of amytal injected into the dominant lobe?

Back 85

Loss of ability to speak

Front 86

Amytal injected in the left ICA will produce __________, whereas amytal injected into the right ICA will produce __________/

Back 86

left - depression
right - euphoria

Front 87

if there is cortical damage to a child sparing the right hemisphere - what will be the influence on language?

Back 87

Damage to the R hemisphere in children is not so significant: they "adapt" so their speech is adequate. Above the age of 6 this observation is not seen.

Front 88

In general, will cortical damage to the right hemisphere effect language skills?

Back 88

No

Front 89

What is the operculum and where is it located?

Back 89

associated with 2 main areas of language (Broca's & Wernicke's). It is located in the area around the lateral sulcus overlying the insula.

Front 90

What area of the brain is called the writing area? Where is this located?

Back 90

Exner's area - superior to Broca's area in premotor cortex.

Front 91

What are the two parts of Wernicke's area? What is their main function?

Back 91

1. traditional Wernicke's area (anterior) - spoken language
2. angular gyrus (btwn visual and auditory cortex) - written language

Front 92

T/F: The arcuate fasciculus is bidirectional.

Back 92

True

Front 93

The "modern" view of language areas lists 3 area networks. What are they?

Back 93

1. Conceptual - concepts from higher cortices
2. mediational - intermediary btwn. conceptual and implementation.(around B & W)
3. Implementation - controls articulation and grammar. (B, W, insula, basal ganglia)

Front 94

In regards to the temporal cortex:
1. place/people's names go here
2. tools/utensil names go here
3. Common names (dog) go here.

Back 94

1. anterior
2. posterior
3. inferior

Front 95

What is the insula responsible for in regards to language function?
What would a lesion in this location look like?

Back 95

motor planning for speech. A lesion would result in trouble saying words accurately.

Front 96

What is the medial frontal cortex responsible for in regards to language function?
What would a lesion in this location look like?

Back 96

"desire" to communicate
lesion results in mutism

Front 97

What are CN nuclei responsible for in regards to language function?

Back 97

motor, sensory and parasympathetic aspects of speech

Front 98

Define prosity
Where is this function found?

Back 98

timing, intonation and stress of language. Function found in right cortex.

Front 99

Define pragmatics.
Where is this function found?

Back 99

language appropriate to social settings. (a lesion will cause innapropriate actions and inability to "get" jokes). Found in right cortex

Front 100

The area of the brain responsible for familiar voices, music and rythm is _____________.

Back 100

The right cortex

Front 101

Communication vs. language
What is thinking?

Back 101

communication: transmit ideas
language: transmit abstract ideas
thinking = the ability to have ideas

Front 102

1. define phonology
2. define morphology
3. Define syntax
4. define semantics

Back 102

1. speech sounds (phonics)
2. combining sounds into words
3. combining words to form sentences
4. relation of phonology and syntax to meaning

Front 103

T/F: intelligence correlates with language.

Back 103

False. Language is separate from intelligence.

Front 104

Aphasia is an UMN problem. name the two types of aphasia

Back 104

1. expressive aphasia - cannot transform thought into spoken or written information
2. receptive aphasia - cannot transform spoken or written information into thoughts.

Front 105

define logorrhea

Back 105

excessive output of words

Front 106

Conduction aphasia is damage to ____________. How does it present?

Back 106

arcuate fasciculus
can comprehend and produce meaningful speech: have word finding problems, cannot repeat sentences

Front 107

1. Damage to higher cortical areas that initiate speech is _____________ aphasia. 2. How would this present?

Back 107

1. transcortical motor aphasia (info does not pass from higher centers)
2. presents as: intact comprehension, can repeat long sentences, trouble initiating speech.

Front 108

1. Damage to the posterior end of the lateral sulcus would result in ____________ aphasia.
2. How would this patient present?

Back 108

1. Transcortical sensory aphasia (info does not pass to higher centers)
2. fluent speech, can repeat long sentences, echolalia, anomic aphasia, can repeat sentences (vs. Wernicke's - can't repeat sentences)

Front 109

1. What is global aphasia?
2. How would this patient present?

Back 109

1. damage to the Left hemisphere and basal ganglia.
2. severe impairment of understanding and language expression. may retain automatic speech (ie. counting)

Front 110

What is anomic aphasia?

Back 110

trouble finding a name for objects

Front 111

define: alexia

Back 111

lack reading. damage in angular gyrus: disrupt pathways to language centers.

Front 112

define: agraphia

Back 112

lack writing. damage to Exner's area

Front 113

Define: dysarthria

Back 113

motor speech problem (LMN) located in brainstem or CN nuclei of fibers. Only affects muscles

Front 114

define: apraxia

Back 114

disorder of programming muscles of articulation. (cannot combine sounds to form a word)

Front 115

define: dysphonia

Back 115

disorder of the larynx

Front 116

define: amusia

Back 116

lesion of Right parietal, occipital or temporal cortex resulting in inability to recognize familiar voices, music and rythm.

Front 117

define: akinetic mutism

Back 117

lose motivation to speak (usually temporary). Damage is to medial frontal cortex

Front 118

define: agnosia

Back 118

lack of sensory recognition of speech (due to lesioned sensory association areas)

Front 119

What is a characteristic of lesions to the Right hemisphere? This finding is characteristic of a __________ lobe lesion.

Back 119

Contralateral Neglect (fail to act with or acknowledge left side of body). This is characteristic of a parietal lobe lesion.

Front 120

Failure to respond to stimuli on one side of the body is known as __________.

Back 120

inattention. If stimulus in strong enough pt. will respond

Front 121

How can you confirm inattention in a patient?

Back 121

by double simultaneous stimulation. Elicit a moderate stimuli on both sides - results in extinction of inattention side.

Front 122

Extinction is defined as:

Back 122

failure of the inattention side to respond to double simultaneous stimulation.

Front 123

How can extinction and innattention be overcome?

Back 123

by elicing a strong stimulus: that will be noticed on the inattention side.

Front 124

Regarding music: if you are untrained it is percieved in the ___(1)________ cortex. If trained (professional) it is perceived in the ____(2)_____ cortex. If you are singing it comes from the ______(3)____ cortex.

Back 124

1. Right
2. Left
3. right

Front 125

What are the three components of the 3 neuroaxis model of brain functioning?

Back 125

1. Right-Left Axis
2. Anterior-Posterior Axis
3. Up-Down Axis

Front 126

What are the three components to a functioning memory?

Back 126

1. Encoding
2. Storage
3. Retrieval

Front 127

Cortical dementias would be a problem in which component of memory?

Back 127

Storage

Front 128

Test Anxiety is a classic example of which component of memory?

Back 128

Retrieval

Front 129

In adults, a common aquired neurological problem of the LH is __________. In children it is __________.

Back 129

Adults - aphasia
Children - dyslexia

Front 130

reading comprehension, prosodic expression and comprehension, Calculation of spacial alignment: these are all characteristics of which hemisphere?

Back 130

RH

Front 131

Which hemisphere of the brain allows us to apply "affect" to our statements?

Back 131

RH

Front 132

Damage to which hemisphere results in a more severe spacial attention loss (severe contralateral neglect)

Back 132

Damage to the RH.

Front 133

What is meant by executive functions?

Back 133

control or self-regulatory functions that ORGANIZE and DIRECT all cognitive activity, emotional response and overt behavior.

Front 134

What is a disorder that has problems with executive function?

Back 134

ADHD

Front 135

Executive functions have to do with __________. Examples of this include self regulation, planning and organization, social adaptation

Back 135

Performance

Front 136

'Knowing what to do is not the same as doing what you know' Knowing is a function of which area? What about doing?

Back 136

knowing - posterior based
doing - frontal based

Front 137

The relationship between ______ functions and ______ functions is like the relationship between athletes and their coach.

Back 137

cognitive functions
executive functions

Front 138

The up-down axis mediates communication between __________ and _________.
*give an example

Back 138

Cortical gray matter and Subcortical White matter
*frontal system vs. brainstem, hippicampus. (executive functions vs. arousal, attention, motivation)

Front 139

What are some roles of white matter in human behavior?

Back 139

speed of processing
integration
retrieval of memories/knowl.
organization
multitasking

Front 140

Would a disturbance in white matter result in a disturbance of IQ?

Back 140

NO.

Front 141

What % of PD pts develop dementia?

Back 141

10-30%

Front 142

Neuroimaging tells you about the _____________ of the brain: neuropsychological eval. tells you about the __________ .

Back 142

structural
function
(Structural damage does not always correlate with functional ability)

Front 143

What is pragmatic damage?

Back 143

Talking too much: taking the "scenic route" to expain or define something.

Front 144

Where is the damage in global aphasia?

Back 144

in both Broca's and Wernicke's areas.

Front 145

Which hemisphere stroke is at a higher risk for developing depression?

Back 145

LH

Front 146

An indifference reaction is often observed following a ____ hemisphere CVA.
Symptoms?

Back 146

RH or bilateral
Sx. undue cheerfulness, apathy.

Front 147

A frontal heteromodal syndrome of unawareness presents as unawareness of ________? (2)

Back 147

social innapropriatness
planning or anticipation

Front 148

A parietal heteromodal syndrome of unawareness presents as unawareness of _____________? (2)

Back 148

impaired sensory function
hemiplegia, hemi-neglect

Front 149

Catastrophic reaction syndrome is often observed following a ____ CVA. Symptoms?

Back 149

Left anterior-subcortical
Sx: axiety, tears, verbal, physical aggression

Front 150

a left frontal or a basal ganglia lesion often results in ________________. Pt. presents as irritated, anxious, sad, weight loss, trouble sleeping.

Back 150

Depression

Front 151

What is the disease/problem?
- memory dysfunction
- neglect
- problems with "affect"
- cause sometimes HTN, DM

Back 151

Subcortical Vascular disease

Front 152

The following are all risk factors for what?
hypertension
Cardiac disease
TIA's
Smoking, ETOH, drug abuse
Elevated lipids

Back 152

Vascular Cognitive Impairment

Front 153

What is one of the earliest symptoms of cardiovascular disease?

Back 153

HTN

Front 154

Can there be cognitive decline after CABG?

Back 154

Yes: due to precedures, equipment used.

Front 155

Mixed dementia is defined as...

Back 155

coexistance of AD and Vascular Dementia (VaD)

Front 156

Development of AD plaques & tangles may be due to ____________.

Back 156

Ischemia from CV disease

Front 157

What is the pathophysiology of seizures and epilepsy?

Back 157

Unknown (65-75%)

Front 158

What are the indications and the MOA of Phenytoin and Carbamezepine?

Back 158

indications: epilepsy
MOA: enhance Na+ activation: result - reduce firing rates

Front 159

Define paroxysmal

Back 159

sudden outburst or alteration of behavior, movement or sensation

Front 160

Define: ictal

Back 160

during a seizure

Front 161

Define: post-ictal

Back 161

after a seizure

Front 162

Define: interictal

Back 162

between seizures

Front 163

What are the three main classifications for seizures?

Back 163

1. Partial (small area)
2. Generalized (both hemisph)
3. Unclassified

Front 164

Partial Seizures can be further subdivided into two types: Simple (Focal) seizures and Complex seizures. What is difference between the two?

Back 164

Simple (focal) seizures are partial seizures without alteration of consciousness.
Complex Seizures involve an alteration of consciousness.

Front 165

T/F: Partial seizures never evolve to secondary generalized seizures.

Back 165

FALSE. They can evolve.

Front 166

What is the most common type of epilepsy?

Back 166

Generalized seizure epilepsy

Front 167

Define: generalized seizures

Back 167

uncontrollable discharge of neurons on both sides of the brain. (they start in one side and spread across the brain)

Front 168

Do generalized siezures result in a loss of consciousness?

Back 168

Yes. People w/ this type of epilepsy do not remember having a seizure.

Front 169

Define: myoclonic seizure

Back 169

generalized seizure that involves the motor cortex. (causes twitching and jerking)

Front 170

What is status epilepticus?

Back 170

A period of frequent, long-lasting seizures WITHOUT regaining consciousness between attacks. Can be fatal; req. medical attention

Front 171

What are 3 known causes of epilepsy?

Back 171

1. Genetic (defect in genes that encode ion channels)
2. Structural (tumor, infection, excess CSF, Scar tissue)
3. Metabolic (hypoglycemia, hypocalcemia, drug use or abuse)

Front 172

seizures that develop in old age are known as _________?

Back 172

Neurodegerative seizures (often secondary to CVA)

Front 173

In an EEG: what is the source of current that causes fluctuating scalp potential?

Back 173

Pyramidal neurons
(These are the neurons most prone to seizure activity)

Front 174

What is basic epileptogenesis?

Back 174

Thought to be a biologic event that alters balance between (+) and (-) in neural networks.

Front 175

Why are EEGs so useful in diagnosing seizures?

Back 175

They are very good at measuring synchronicity of cell firing. In a seizure all the cells fire at once.

Front 176

T/F: An EEG can read one pyramidal neuron when it fires an AP.

Back 176

FALSE. It takes many thousands of neurons firing at once to generate a signal large enough to detect w/EEG

Front 177

What is the major EEG rythm seen in normal relaxed adults? (Eyes must be closed)

Back 177

Alpha rythm

Front 178

What is the major EEG rythm that is normal in infants and sleep: if seen in an adult, it indicates pathology.

Back 178

Theta activity

Front 179

What is the major EEG rythm that is normal when eyes are open and patients are alert?

Back 179

Beta activity

Front 180

Spikes, Sharp Waves and Polyspikes on an EEG are known as __________ and are due to ____________.

Back 180

Epileptiform discharges
synchrony of thousands and thousands of firing neurons

Front 181

There are three basic mechanisms used by AEDs. What are they?

Back 181

1. Increased inactivation of Na+ channels - reduces sustained firing
2. Act on synaptic transmission ((+) of (-) neurotransmission or vice versa)
3. Act on NT receptors: enhance GABA receptor action
reduce glutamate receptor action

Front 182

The MOA of the older AEDs was/is ____________, whereas the newer drugs are starting to target _____________. Advantage?

Back 182

Na+ channel inactivation
GABA and NMDA receptors
Targets are more specific - causes less adverse effects

Front 183

What are 3 other treatment modalities used for seizures?

Back 183

1. Ketogenic diet
2. Vagus Nerve Stimulation
3. Biofeedback

Front 184

T/F: 25-30% of epilepsy patients on AEDs still have inadequate seizure control.

Back 184

True

Front 185

There are four functional "groups" of the reticular formation. Name them and where they would be found...

Back 185

1. Parvocellular (Lateral, small) Group
2. Magnocellular (medial, large) group
3. Paramedian group (PPRF)
4. Raphe group (midline: "Raphe" = seam)

Front 186

What is the function of the Lateral group of the pontomedullary reticular formation?

Back 186

function: local "circuit" control of CN functions. (visceral and motor coordination)

Front 187

What is the function of the Medial group of the pontomedullary reticular formation?

Back 187

descending: movement and posture, pain modulation
ascending: cortical arousal

Front 188

What is the function of the Paramedian group of the pontomedullary reticular formation?

Back 188

PPRF - controls voluntary horizontal conjugate gaze.

Front 189

What is the function of the Raphe group of the pontomedullary reticular formation?

Back 189

descending: pain modulation
ascending: cortical arousal, affective behavior

Front 190

There are 3 monoaminergic systems that arise from the brainstem reticular formation. Name them.

Back 190

1. Noradrinergic
2. Seratonergic
3. Dompaminergic

Front 191

The Noradrenergic projections arise from ____________ and project to ________. Functions?

Back 191

Locus ceruleus
project all over the brain
function: maintain attentiveness, sleep-wake states and mood.

Front 192

The Seratonergic projections arise from _________ and project to ________. Functions?

Back 192

from midline raphe nuclei
project all over brain.
functions:
descending: pain modulation, regulation of motor systems
ascending: cortical arousal, affective behaviors

Front 193

The Dopaminergic projections arise from two locations. What are they?

Back 193

1. Substantia Nigra
2. Ventral Tegmental Area of midbrain

Front 194

Name the 3 dopaminergic projections, where they start and end, functions.

Back 194

1. mesostriatal - substantia nigra to striatum. (Motor)
2. Mesolimbic - ventral tegmental area to limbic system (emotion, thought memory).
3. mesocortical - ventral tegmental area to prefrontal cortex. (emotion, thought, memory).

Front 195

Cholaminergic projections seem to be involved in _______________?

Back 195

cortical arousal
alertness
learning
memory

Front 196

The dementia in Alzheimer's disease is contributed to cholinergic projections from ______________.

Back 196

the Basal Nucleus of Meynert. (It has widespread cortical connections)

Front 197

Histaminergic projections arise from the ___________ and project to the ___________. Function?

Back 197

hypothalamus to the forebrain
function: maintainance of an alert state

Front 198

How does the reticular formation carry out sensory modulation?

Back 198

PAIN MODULATION: they send a descending "reticulospinal" projection to the spinal dorsal horn - influence inhibitory interneurons by releasing enkephalin. Pain neuron transmission inhibited.

Front 199

What do the pontine and medullary reticulospinal pathways regulate? How?

Back 199

regulate tone and posture
they have descending influences on alpha and gamma motor neurons

Front 200

The descending tectobulbar projections carry out what function of the reticular formation?

Back 200

PPRF = controls voluntary conjugate movement of the eyes.

Front 201

How does the reticular formation modulate arousal and consciousness?

Back 201

via the RAS. (Reticular activating system)

Front 202

Alteration of consciousness or arousal states involving bilateral lesions to the reticular formation results in___________.

Back 202

either a coma or persistant vegitative state.