Set the Language

We weren't able to detect the audio language on your flashcards. Please select the correct language below.

Front

Back

Flashcards
»
Week 3

Week 3

by Emma2201, Sep. 2016

Subjects: Memory and Cognition

Favorite

Add to folder

Flag

Shuffle
Toggle On

Toggle Off
Alphabetize
Toggle On

Toggle Off
Front First
Toggle On

Toggle Off
Both Sides
Toggle On

Toggle Off
Read
Toggle On

Toggle Off

Reading...

Front

Card Range To Study

through

Play button

Progress

1/50

Click to flip

Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;

Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;

H to show hint;

A reads text to speech;

50 Cards in this Set

Front
Back

	Define memory	– involves maintaining information over time(Matlin, 1998) - dynamic mechanisms associated with retention& retrieval of information – involves 3 operations: encoding; storage;retrieval (Sternberg, 1999)
	What does encoding involve?	- Encoding occurs when information is firsttranslated into a form that other cognitiveprocesses can use - It is held in storage in one form or anotherfor later retrieval
	What does retrieval involve?	retrieval involves calling to mind of previouslystored information
	How does forgetting occur?	Forgetting occurs when we cannot retrieveinformation
	What activities involve memory?	using skills recalling facts recalling autobiographical information recognising people, recalling their names remembering to do things (prospective) doing mental arithmetic, thinking
	What metaphor did Plato use for memory?	– an aviary – a wax tablet on which impressions are made
	What metaphors were used for memory in the middle ages and renaissance periods?	In Middle Ages & Renaissance periods,memory was likened to – a cave; an empty cabinet; a body in need ofexercise
	What metaphors were used for memory in the 50s?	In 1950s, memory was likened to – a telephone system; a computer – information processing approach
	Describe Atkinson & Shiffrin’s (1968) model	a multi-store model 3 separate stores – sensory memory– short-term memory STM– long term memory LTM control processes: strategies used flexibly &voluntarily – rehearsal: silent repetition used to maintaininformation and transfer it from STM to LTM
	Describe Sensory memory	allows us to experience the sensation of avisual pattern, a sound, or touch, after thesensory stimulation has ceased encoding format: copy of input storage capacity: large (25+?) storage duration: very brief ¼ to 2 secs. information attended to is transferred toSTM, rest decays very rapidly, & is lost
	Describe short term memory (STM)	aka primary memory, short term store holds and/or manipulates information forshort periods of time encoding format: mostlyphonemic/acoustic storage capacity is limited duration about 30 secs without rehearsal loss through decay
	Describe long term memory (LTM)	aka secondary memory, long term storage stores all our acquired knowledge & skills encoding format is mostly semantic storage capacity seems to be unlimited duration of storage is relatively permanent loss through: decay, interference, loss ofstrength of the trace
	What are the main claims of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model?	STM & LTM are distinct acoustic encoding in STM semantic encoding in LTM frequently rehearsed items aretransferred from STM to LTM
	Describe free recall tasks	Ps are presented with a list of items andasked to recall as many items as possible inany order Recall accuracy -> serial position curve – Primacy effect – Recency effect
	Describe Rundus' (1971) study	examined link between rehearsal & recall Method – presented lists of 20 nouns – participants rehearsed aloud – recorded number of rehearsals per word – tested recall of words
	What were Rundus' results?	serial position effect – primacy effect: better recall of words atbeginning of list – recency effect: better recall of words at end oflist number of rehearsals declined frombeginning to end of list
	What was Rundus' interpretation? part 1	primacy effect reflects greater frequency ofrehearsal of early items recency effect: words at end of list are stillin sensory memory or STM, are recalledfirst supports STM-LTM distinction – recency component corresponds to STM – primacy component, middle correspond to LTM
	What was Rundus' interpretation? part 2	Fast presentation of words => reducedopportunity for rehearsal – => primacy effect is abolished – => recency effect remains (Murdock, 1962) If P is prevented from reporting last fewimmediately – => recency effect is abolished – => primacy effect remains (Postman & Phillips,1965) Different effects on primacy and recencycomponents Supports STM-LTM distinction– recency component corresponds to STM– primacy component + middle correspond toLTM Supports role of rehearsal in transfer fromSTM to LTM
	Describe Kintsch & Buschke (1969)'s experiment 1	Experiment 1 word list contained synonyms– angry, sofa, forest, ocean, couch, sea, mad cued recall task– Present one word (sofa), participant recalls nextword on list (forest) examined responses for semantic confusions– Confusion about which stimulus was presented,based on semantic factors
	Explain Kintsch & Bushke's results	Results of Exp. 1 semantic confusions were more frequent forwords that occurred at beginning of list items at beginning of list are encodedprimarily in terms of their meaning(semantically)
	Describe Kintsch & Buschke (1969)'s experiment 2	Experiment 2 word list contained homonyms– tacks, so, buy, owe, tied, sew, tax, by etc cued recall task– present one word (so), participant recalls nextword on list (buy) examined responses for acoustic confusions - Confusion about which stimulus was presented, basedon acoustic factors
	Describe Kintsch & Buschke's results for experiment 2	Results of Exp. 2 acoustic confusions were more frequent forwords at end of list– suggests items at end of list are encodedprimarily in terms of sound Results (Exps 1 & 2) – consistent with STM-LTM distinction – different coding formats
	Describe the evidence from neuropsychology	case studies suggest that one componentcan be impaired while other is not HM: 27-year-old epileptic patient underwent surgery => removal of parts oftemporal lobes => reduced seizures => IQincreased
	Describe HM patient	Memory– Could remember: • sequence of digits for short time (if not distracted) • semantic information, events that occurred severalyears before operation Could not remember: form new memories of new events• transfer new information to LTM STM is OK; LTM is not OK
	What evidence is there against STM-LTM distinction?	Crowder (1993) Long term recency effect – better recall for items at end of list, but listwas learned long ago – North American undergraduates recallednames of US presidents & Canadian PrimeMinisters - recall of recent presidents & PMs was better
	What is the levels of processing approach?	focus on how stimuli are analysed atencoding stage rather than differentmemory stores, rehearsal, repetition 3 types of encoding that vary in depth ofprocessing deeper levels of processing => longerlasting memories
	What are the three aforementioned levels of processing?	Structural encoding– shallowest level of processing– emphasises physical structure of the stimulus Phonemic encoding– intermediate level of processing– emphasises what the stimulus sounds like Semantic encoding– deepest level of processing– emphasises meaning of the input
	Explain Craik & Tulving (1975)'s experiment	- 3 types of questions about words on study list toencourage 3 different types of encoding - followed by incidental learning test – Unexpected – No prior mention of memory test
	How do you enrich semantic encoding?	Elaboration– linking the stimulus to other information at thetime of encoding– more effort at encoding -> better recall Visual imagery– creating visual images to represent the wordsto be remembered– useful for concrete words, less so for abstract– using multiple codes
	What are the two kinds of rehearsal?	Maintenance– repeats the kind of analysis already carried out– more rehearsals => no effect on later recall Elaborative– involves deeper, more meaningful rehearsal– more rehearsals => better recall
	Describe the generation effect	Information that person generates is betterremembered than information they seeSlamenka & Graf (1978) Ps generated words according to rule– FAST - Q_ _ _ _; generate QUICKOR Ps read word pairs aloud. FAST- QUICK recall was better in generate group than readgroup consistent with levels-of-processing approach
	Describe Palmere et al's experiment	Generated paragraphs with• 1 “main idea” sentence, 3 “example”sentences Participants read essays containing 32 paragraphs – 8 paragraphs presented intact – 8 paragraphs had 1 sentence removed – 8 paragraphs had 2 sentences removed – 8 paragraphs had 3 sentences removed DV– Recall of main ideas
	What were Palmere et al's results	Results– Inclusion of more examples => better recall ofmain ideas Interpretation– More examples = more elaboration => betterrecall of main ideas
	What is the self reference effect?	better recall if information is encoded inrelation to the self Self-referent encoding involves deciding how orwhether information is personally relevant extension of levels-of-processing approach?
	What are the strengths?	highlighted importance of mental processes thatoccur when material is being learned illustrated importance of connections betweenpieces of information indicated how to improve recall
	What are the limitations?	circularity. Need an independent and precisemeasure of depth of processing deep processing does not always produce betterrecall under certain conditions acoustic advantage oversemantic encoding modal model of memory might also account forthese effect
	Describe Tulving's (1972, 1993) model	3 types of knowledge reflect: – different memory systems – different types of conscious experience
	What are Tulvings 3 types of knowledge?	Episodic knowledge– refers to specific events or episodes that therememberer experienced– includes a temporal context Semantic knowledge– refers to organised general knowledge– includes no temporal context Procedural knowledge– how to perform particular tasks, skills– knowing how, not knowing that– difficult to describe verbally– develops prior to semantic & episodic
	Describe the model of long term memory
	What are the three types of conscious experience?	Sensation: Procedural memory Remembering: Episodic memory Knowing: Semantic memory
	Describe case study 1 of the episodic-semantic distinction	Case 1 (Gene) – age 30 years, survived a motorcycle accident – serious damage to frontal and temporal lobesincluding left hippocampus => anterograde +retrograde amnesia – cannot recall any specific past events – can recall many facts – semantic memory intact; no episodic memory
	Describe case study 2 of the episodic-semantic distinction	Case 2 (woman) – Encephalitis => damage temporal lobe – Cannot recall meanings of common words,basic facts, historical events, famous people ... – Can remember specific events – Episodic memory intact; no semantic memory– Opposite pattern to Gene
	What do these episodic-semantic distinction cases indicate?	Case studies suggest that episodic (orsemantic) memory can be impaired whilstsemantic (or episodic) memory is not. Supports episodic-semantic distinction
	Explain imaging studies	Tulving (1989)– intact individuals engaged in 2 tasks • semantic retrieval => posterior cortex more active • episodic retrieval => frontal cortex more active Davies, Graham, Xuereb, Williams & Hodge(2004) – Atrophy of perirhinal cortex of temporal lobeand directly connected areas affects semanticbut not episodic memory
	Explain the correlational study by Underwood et al (1978)	tested 200 students on tests of– semantic memory– episodic memory low correlations observed supports distinction between episodic &semantic memory
	Evaluation	Are episodic memory and semantic memorybest construed as separate systems? – Separate memories could exist within a singlesystem Can a clear distinction be made between: – knowledge that includes information about thetime it was first learned (episodic) and – knowledge that is more generic (semantic)?
	Explain Bartlett (1932)'s schema based approach	memory uses world knowledge and schemata Schemata: frameworks for organisinginformation in LTM At retrieval, Ps reconstruct memories based ontheir knowledge and schemata Bartlett rejected the idea of LTM as awarehouse where material is stored unchangeduntil retrieval Memory is an active and inaccurate process thatencode information so as to “make sense”
	Decribe Bartlett's War of the Ghost experiment	“The War of the Ghosts:” A Story Used byBartlett (1932) to Investigate Long-TermMemory Presented stories, then Ps recalled the stories onmultiple occasions Serial reproduction technique
	What were Bartlett's schema based model results?	Recall became more distorted with each retelling people introduced material to makematerial more rational and coherent, moreconsistent with their assumptions andexisting schema Memory of stories was reconstructed Forerunner of more recent work on memorydistortions, eye witness memory etc.
	Describe schemas	Schema – general knowledge or expectations,based on our past experiences with a person,object or event Memory for common everyday events e.g.,restaurant Schemas guide our recall -> consistency bias Consistency bias – exaggerate the consistencybetween our past and present feelings/beliefs– consistent beliefs across our lives Tell life stories so they are consistent with ourcurrent schema about ourselves

Share This Flashcard Set

Set the Language

Week 3

Add to Folders

Upgrade to Cram Premium

Card Range To Study

50 Cards in this Set