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246 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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The basic structural unit of all plants and animals. A membrane enclosing a thick fluid and a nucleus. These are specialized to carry out all of the body's basic functions.
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Cell
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- Cell membrane
- Cytoplasm - Organelles |
Main elements of the cell
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Also plasma membrane; the outer covering of a cell.
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Cell membrane
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Able to allow some, but not all, substances to pass through. Cell membranes have this characteristic.
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Semipermeable
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The thick fluid, or protoplasm, that fills a cell.
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Cytoplasm
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Structures that perform specific functions within a cell.
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Organelles
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The organelle within a cell that contains the DNA, or genetic material; in the cells of higher organisms, the nucleus is surrounded by a membrane.
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Nucleus
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A high-energy compound present in all cells, especially muscle cells; when split by enzyme action it yields energy. Energy is stored in this compound.
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Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
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Cells -> Tissues -> Organs -> Organ systems -> Organism
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Structural Hierarchy of the Body
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A group of cells that perform a similar function.
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Tissue
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The protective tissue that lines internal and external body tissues. Examples: skin, mucous membranes, the lining of the intestinal tract.
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Epithelial tissue
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Tissue that is capable of contraction when stimulated.
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Muscle tissue
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- Cardiac (myocardium, or heart muscle)
- Smooth (within intestines, surrounding blood vessles) - Skeletal, or striated (allows skeletal movement) |
3 types of muscle tissue
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The most abundant body tissue; it provides support, connection, and insulation. Examples: bone, cartilage, fat, blood.
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Connective tissue
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Tissue that transmits electrical impulses throughout the body.
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Nerve tissue
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A group of tissues functioning together. Examples: heart, liver, brain, ovary, eye.
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Organ
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A group of organs that work together. Examples: the cardiovascular system, formed of the heart, blood vessels, and blood; the gastrointestinal system, comprising the mouth, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, gallbladder, rectum, and anus.
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Organ system
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- Cardiovascular
- Respiratory - Gastrointestinal - Genitourinary - Reproductive - Nervous - Endocrine - Lymphatic - Muscular - Skeletal |
Organ systems
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The sum of all the cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems of a living being. Examples: the human organism, a bacterial organism.
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Organism
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The natural tendency of the body to maintain a steady and normal internal environment.
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Homeostasis
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The structure of an organism; body structure.
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Anatomy
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The functions of an organism; the physical and chemical processes of a living thing.
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Physiology
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The total changes that take place during physiological processes.
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Metabolism
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- Local (at the site of the illness or injury)
- Systemic (throughout the body) |
Effects of Disease
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Body mechanisms that work to reverse, or compensate for, a pathophysiological process (or to reverse any physiological process, whether pathological or nonpathological).
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Negative feedback loop
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- Nervous system
- Endocrine system |
Control systems
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The study of disease and its causes.
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Pathology
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The physiology of disordered function.
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Pathophysiology
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- Atrophy
- Hypertrophy - Hyperplasia - Metaplasia - Dysplasia |
Cellular Adaptations
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A decrease in cell size resulting from a decreased workload.
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Atrophy
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An increase in cell size resulting from an increased workload.
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Hypertrophy
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Enlargement. In reference to the heart, an abnormal enlargement resulting from pathology.
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Dilation
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An increase in number of cells resulting from an increased workload.
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Hyperplasia
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Cell division with division of the nucleus; each daughter cell contains the same number of chromosomes as the mother cell.
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Mitosis
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Replacement of one type of cell by another type of cell that is not normal for that tissue.
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Metaplasia
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A change in cell size, shape, or appearance caused by an external stressor.
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Dysplasia
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- Hypoxia
- Chemicals - Infectious agents - Inflammatory reactions - Physical agents - Nutritional factors - Genetic factors |
Forms of cellular injury
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Oxygen deficiency.
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Hypoxia
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A blockage in the delivery of oxygenated blood to the cells.
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Ischemia
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A microorganism capable of producing infection or disease.
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Pathogen
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- Pathogen wins.
- Pathogen and body battle to a draw. - Body defeats pathogen. |
Pathogens vs. the body: 3 possible outcomes
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The constructive phase of metabolism in which cells convert nonliving cytoplasm.
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Anabolism
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The destructive phase of metabolism in which cells break down complex substances into simpler substances with release of energy.
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Catabolism
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Swelling of a cell caused by injury to or change in permeability of the ell membrane with resulting inability to maintain stable intra- and extracellular fluid and electrolyte levels.
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Cellular swelling
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A result of cellular injury and swelling in which lipids (fat vesicles) invade the area of injury; occurs most commonly in the liver.
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Fatty change
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Response in which an injured cell releases enzymes that engulf and destroy itself; one way the body rids itself of damaged and dead cells.
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Apoptosis
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Cell death; a pathological cell change.
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Necrosis
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- Coagulative
- Liquefactive - Caseous - Fatty |
Four types of necrotic cell change
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- Apoptosis (usually normal)
- Necrosis (always pathological) - Coagulative - Liquefactive - Caseous - Fatty - Gangrenous necrosis (over a wide area) - Dry gangrene - Wet gangrene - Gas gangrene |
Results of cell death
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The fluid inside the body cells.
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Intracellular fluid (ICF)
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The fluid outside the body cells. This fluid is comprised of intravascular fluid and interstitial fluid.
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Extracellular fluid (ECF)
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The fluid within the circulatory system; blood plasma.
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Intravascular fluid
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The fluid in body tissues that is outside the cells and outside the vascular system.
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Interstitial fluid
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A substance that dissolves other substances, forming a solution.
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Solvent
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Excessive loss of body fluid.
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Dehydration
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Normal tension in a cell; the resistance of the skin to deformation. (In a normally hydrated person, the skin, when pinched, will quickly return to its normal formation. In a dehydrated person, the return to normal formation will be slower.)
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Turgor
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The presence or retention of an abnormally high amount of body fluid.
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Overhydration
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- Vomiting
- Diarrhea - Perspiration - Peritonitis - Malnutrition - Burns - Open wounds |
Some causes of dehydration
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A substance that, in water, separates into electrically charged particles.
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Electrolyte
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Separate; break down. For example, sodium bicarbonate, when placed in water, dissociates into a sodium cation and a bicarbonate anion.
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Dissociate
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A charged particle; an atom or group of atoms whose electrical charge has changed form neutral to positive or negative by losing or gaining one or more electrons. (In an atom's normal, nonionized state, its positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons balance each other so that the atom's charge is neutral.)
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Ion
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An ion with a positive charge - so called because it will be attracted to a cathode, or negative pole.
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Cation
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An ion with a negative charge - so called because it will be attracted to an anode, or positive pole.
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Anion
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A substance that tends to preserve or restore a normal acid-base balance by increasing or decreasing the concentration of hydrogen ions.
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Buffer
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Equal in concentration of solute molecules; solutions may be isotonic to each other.
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Isotonic
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Having a greater concentration of solute molecules; one solution may be hypertonic to another
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Hypertonic
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Having a lesser concentration of solute molecules; one solution may be hypotonic to another
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Hypotonic
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The difference in concentration between solutions on opposite sides of a semipermeable membrane
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Osmotic gradient
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The movement of molecules through a membrane from an area of greater concentration to an area of lesser concentration.
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Diffusion
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The passage of a solvent such as water through a membrane
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Osmosis
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Movement of a substance through a cell membrane against the osmotic gradient; that is, from an area of lesser concentration to an area of greater concentration, opposite to the normal direction of diffusion.
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Active transport
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Diffusion of a substance such as glucose through a cell membrane that requires the assistance of a "helper," or carrier protein.
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Facilitated diffusion
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The concentration of solute per kilogram of water.
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Osmolality
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The concentration of solute per liter of water.
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Osmolarity
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The pressure exerted by the concentration of solutes on one side of a membrane that, if hypertonic, tends to "pull" water (cause osmosis) from the other side of the membrane
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Osmotic pressure
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A form of osmotic pressure exerted by the large protein particles, or colloids, present in blood plasma. In the capillaries, the plasma colloids tend to pull water from the interstitial space across the capillary membrane into the capillary. Also called colloid osmotic pressure.
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Oncotic force
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Blood pressure or force against vessel walls created by the heartbeat. Hydrostatic pressure tends to force water out of the capillaries into the interstitial space.
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Hydrostatic pressure
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Movement of water out of the plasma across the capillary membrane into the interstitial space.
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Filtration
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The total loss of water from blood plasma across the capillary membrane into the interstitial space. Normally, hydrostatic pressure forcing water out of the capillary is balanced by oncotic force pulling water into the capillary for a net filtration of zero.
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Net filtration
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Excess fluid in the interstitial space
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Edema
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Blood Components
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- Liquid portion (plasma)
- Formed elements (blood cells) |
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The liquid part of the blood.
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Plasma
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Red blood cells, which contain hemoglobin, which transports oxygen to the cells.
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Erythrocytes
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White blood cells, which play a key role in the immune system and inflammatory (infection-fighting) responses.
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Leukocytes
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Platelets, which are important in blood clotting
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Thrombocytes
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An iron-based compound that binds with oxygen and transports it to the cells.
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Hemoglobin
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The percentage of the blood occupied by erythrocytes.
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Hematocrit
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Intravenous fluids that have the capability to transport oxygen and are compatible with all blood types
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Hemoglobin-based oxygen-carrying solutions (HBOCs)
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Substances, such as proteins or starches, consisting of large molecules or molecule aggregates that disperse evenly within a liquid without forming a true solution.
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Colloids
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A protein commonly present in plant and animal tissues. In the blood, albumin works to maintain blood volume and blood pressure and provides colloid osmotic pressure, which prevents plasma loss from the capillaries.
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Albumin
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Substances capable of crystallization. In solution, unlike colloids, they can diffuse through a membrane, such as a capillary wall
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Crystalloids
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Solute concentration or osmotic pressure relative to the blood plasma or body cells.
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Tonicity
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Abbreviation for potential of hydrogen. A measure of relative acidity or alkalinity. Since the pH scale is inverse to the concentration of acidic hydrogen ions, the lower the pH the greater the acidity and the higher the pH the greater the alkalinity. A normal pH range is 7.35 to 7.45.
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pH
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A high concentration of hydrogen ions; a pH below 7.35
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Acidosis
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A low concentration of hydrogen ions; a pH above 7.45
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Alkalosis
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Three Mechanisms of Hydrogen Ion Removal
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- Bicarbonate buffer system
- Respiration - Kidney function |
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Acid-Base Derangements
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- Respiratory acidosis
- Respiratory alkalosis - Metabolic acidosis - Metabolic alkalosis |
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Acidity caused by abnormal retention of carbon dioxide resulting from impaired ventilation.
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Respiratory acidosis
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Alkalinity caused by excessive elimination of carbon dioxide resulting from increased respirations.
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Respiratory alkalosis
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Acidity caused by an increase in acid often because of increased production of acids during metabolism or form causes such as vomiting, diarrhea, diabetes, or medication.
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Metabolic acidosis
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Alkalinity caused by an increase in plasma bicarbonate resulting from causes including diuresis, vomiting, or ingestion of too much sodium bicarbonate
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Metabolic alkalosis
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An agent that increases urine secretion and elimination of body water
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Diuretic
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Causative Analysis of Disease
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Clinical Factors:
- Host - Agent - Environment Epidemiological Factors: - Incidence - Prevalence - Mortality |
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The supplying of oxygen and nutrients to the body tissues as a result of the constant passage of blood through the capillaries.
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Perfusion
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Inadequate perfusion of the body tissues, resulting in an inadequate supply of oxygen and nutrients to the body tissues. Also called shock.
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Hypoperfusion
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Also called hypoperfusion.
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Shock
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The amount of blood ejected by the heart in one contraction
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Stroke volume
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The amount of blood delivered to the heart during diastole (when the heart fills with blood between contractions); in cardiac physiology, defined as the tension of cardiac muscle fiber at the end of diastole.
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Preload
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The strength of a contraction of the heart.
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Cardiac contractile force
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Epinephrine and norepinephrine, hormones that strongly affect the nervous and cardiovascular systems, metabolic rate, temperature, and smooth muscle.
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Catecholamines
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The resistance a contraction of the heart must overcome in order to eject blood; in cardiac physiology, defined as the tension of cardiac muscle during systole (contraction)
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Afterload
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The amount of blood pumped by the heart in 1 minute (computed as stroke volume x heart rate).
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Cardiac output
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The resistance of the vessels to the flow of blood: increased when the vessels constrict, decreased when the vessels relax.
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Peripheral vascular resistance
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Components of the Circulatory System
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- The pump (heart)
- The fluid (blood) - The container (blood vessels) |
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Major Functions of Perfusion
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- Oxygen transport
- Waste removal |
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Fick Principle
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The movement and utilization of oxygen by the body is dependent upon:
- Adequate concentration of inspired oxygen - Appropriate movement of oxygen across the alveolar/capillary membrane into the arterial bloodstream - Adequate number of red blood cells to carry the oxygen - Proper tissue perfusion - Efficient off-loading of oxygen at the tissue level |
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Physiological Classifications of Shock
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- Inadequate pump (cardiogenic)
- Inadequate fluid (hypovolemic) - Inadequate container (distributive/neurogenic) |
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Characteristics of Impaired Cellular Metabolism in Shock
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- Impaired use of oxygen
- Impaired use of glucose |
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The second stage of metabolism, requiring the presence of oxygen, in which the breakdown of glucose (in a process called the Krebs or citric acid cycle) yields a high amount of energy. Aerobic means "with oxygen".
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Aerobic metabolism
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The first stage of metabolism, which does not require oxygen, in which the breakdown of glucose (in a process called glycolysis) produces pyruvic acid and yields very little energy. Anaerobic means "without oxygen."
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Anaerobic metabolism
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The Stages of Shock
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- Compensated
- Decompensated (progressive) - Irreversible |
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Early stage of shock during which the body's compensatory mechanisms are able to maintain normal perfusion
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Compensated shock
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Advanced stages of shock when the body's compensatory mechanisms are no longer able to maintain normal perfusion; also called progressive shock.
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Decompensated shock
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Shock that has progressed so far that no medical intervention can reverse the condition and death is inevitable
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Irreversible shock
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Types of Shock
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- Cardiogenic
- Hypovolemic - Neurogenic - Anaphylaxis - Septic (Alternative classifications of shock: Cardiogenic, Hypovolemic, Obstructive, Distributive) |
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Shock caused by insufficient cardiac output; the inability of the heart to pump enough blood to perfuse all parts of the body
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Cardiogenic shock
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Shock caused by a loss of intravascular fluid volume
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Hypovolemic shock
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Greatly increased urination and dehydration due to high levels of glucose that cannot be reabsorbed into the blood form the kidney tubules, causing a loss of water into the urine.
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Osmotic diuresis
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Shock resulting from brain or spinal cord injury that causes an interruption of nerve impulses to the arteries with loss of arterial tone, dilation, and relative hypovolemia.
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Neurogenic shock
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A life-threatening allergic reaction; also called anaphylactic shock
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Anaphylaxis
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Shock that develops as the result of infection carried by the bloodstream, eventually causing dysfunction of multiple organ systems.
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Septic shock
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Progressive impairment of two or more organ systems resulting from an uncontrolled inflammatory response to a severe illness or injury
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Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS)
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Progression to MODS
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Infection > Sepsis > Septic shock > MODS > Death (if not corrected early)
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Infectious Agents
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- Bacteria
- Viruses - Fungi - Parasites - Prions |
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Single-cell organisms with a cell membrane and cytoplasm but no organized nucleus. They bind to the cells of a host organism to obtain food and support
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Bacteria (singular bacterium)
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Substances that destroy or inhibit microorganisms, tiny living bodies invisible to the naked eye. (Antibiotic means "destructive to life.")
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Antibiotics
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Toxic (poisonous) substances secreted by bacterial cells during their growth
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Exotoxins
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Molecules in the walls of certain Gram-negative bacteria that are released when the bacterium dies or is destroyed, causing toxic (poisonous) effects on the host body
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Endotoxins
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The systemic spread of toxin through the bloodstream. Also called sepsis.
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Septicemia
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An organism much smaller than a bacterium, visible only under an electron microscope. Viruses invade and live inside the cells of the organisms they infect.
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Virus
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Three Lines of Defense
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- Anatomic barriers
- Inflammatory response - Immune response |
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A marker on the surface of a cell that identifies it as "self" or "non-self."
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Antigen
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A substance produced by B lymphocytes in response to the presence of a foreign antigen that will combine with and control or destroy the antigen, thus preventing infection.
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Antibody
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The body's reactions that inactivate or eliminate foreign antigens
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Immune response
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A long-term condition of production from infection or disease
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Immunity
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Immune Classifications
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- Natural vs. Acquired
- Primary vs. Secondary - Humoral vs. Cell Mediated |
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Inborn protection against infection or disease that is part of the person's or species' genetic makeup
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Natural immunity
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Protection from infection or disease that is (1) developed by the body after exposure to an antigen (active acquired immunity) or (2) transferred to the person from an outside source such as from the mother through the placenta or as a serum (passive acquired immunity)
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Acquired immunity
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Antibodies; proteins, produced in response to foreign antigens, that destroy or control the antigens
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Immunoglobulins
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The initial development of antibodies in response to the first exposure to an antigen in which the immune system becomes "primed" to produce a faster, stronger response to any future exposures
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Primary immune response
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The swift, strong response of the immune system to repeated exposures to an antigen.
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Secondary immune response
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A type of leukocyte, or white blood cell, that attacks foreign substances as part of the body's immune response.
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Lymphocyte
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The type of white blood cells that, in response to the presence of an antigen, produce antibodies that attack the antigen, develop a memory for the antigen, and confer long-term immunity to the antigen.
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B lymphocytes
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The long-term immunity to an antigen provided by antibodies produced by B lymphocytes.
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Humoral immunity
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The type of white blood cell that does not produce antibodies but, instead, attacks antigens directly.
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T lymphocytes
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The short-term immunity to an antigen provided by T lymphocytes, which directly attack the antigen but do not produce antibodies or memory for the antigen.
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Cell-mediated immunity
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Antigens that are able to trigger an immune response.
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Immunogens
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Molecules that do not trigger an immune response on their own but can become immunogenic when combined with larger molecules.
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Haptens
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Antigens the body recognizes as self or non-self; present on all body cells except the red blood cells.
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HLA antigens
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A group of genes on chromosome 6 that provide the genetic code for HLA antigens.
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Major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
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A group of antigens discovered on the red blood cells of rhesus monkeys that is also present to some extent in humans.
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Rh blood group
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An antigen in the Rh blood group that is also known as antigen D. About 85 percent of North Americans have the Rh factor (are Rh positive) while about 15 percent do not have the Rh factor (are Rh negative). Rh positive and Rh negative blood are incompatible; that is, a person who is Rh negative can experience a severe immune response if Rh positive blood is introduced, as through a transfusion or during childbirth.
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Rh factor
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Four blood groups formed by the presence or absence of two antigens known as A and B. A person may have either (type A or type B), both (type AB), or neither (type O). An immune response will be activated whenever a person receives blood containing A or B antigen if this antigen is not already present in his own blood.
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ABO blood groups
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Undifferentiated cells in the bone marrow from which all blood cells, including thrombocytes, erythrocytes, and various types of leukocytes, develop; stem cells are also called hemocytoblasts.
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Stem cells
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The development, by B lymphocyte precursors in the bone marrow, of receptors for every possible type of antigen.
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Clonal diversity
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The process by which a specific antigen reacts with the appropriate receptors on the surface of immature B lymphocytes, thereby activating them and prompting them to proliferate, differentiate, and produce antibodies to the activating antigen.
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Clonal selection
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Cells produced by mature B lymphocytes that "remember" the activating antigen and will trigger a stronger and swifter immune response if reexposure to the antigen occurs.
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Memory cells
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The substance formed when an antibody combines with an antigen to deactivate or destroy it; also called immune complex.
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Antigen-antibody complex
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Four Functions of Antibodies
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- Neutralization of bacterial toxins
- Neutralization of viruses - Opsonization of bacteria - Activation of inflammatory processes |
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Five Classes of Immunoglobulins
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- IgM - produced first
- IgG - has "memory" - IgA - involved in secretory immune responses - IgE - involved in allergic reactions - IgD - low concentrations |
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Human Antibody Classifications
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- Isotypic (same with same species)
- Allotypic (differ between members of same species) - Idiopathic (differ within same individual) |
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An antibody that is very pure and specific to a single antigen.
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Monoclonal antibody
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Lymphoid tissues beneath the mucosal endothelium that secrete substances such as sweat, tears, saliva, mucus, and breast milk; also called the external immune system or the mucosal immune system.
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Secretory immune system
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Five Types of Mature T Cells
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MEMORY CELLS
- Td cells - delayed hypersensitivity - Tc cells - cytotoxic - Th cells - helpers - Ts cells - suppressors |
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An allergic response that takes place after the elapse of some time following reexposure to an antigen.
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Delayed hypersensitivity
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Toxic, or poisonous, to cells.
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Cytotoxic
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Proteins, produced by white blood cells, that regulate immune responses by binding with and affecting the function of the cells that produced them or of other, nearby cells.
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Cytokines
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A cytokine released by a macrophage.
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Monokine
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A cytokine released by a lymphocyte.
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Lymphokine
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The recognition, ingestion, and breakdown of a foreign antigen, culminating in production of an antibody to the antigen or in a direct cytotoxic response to the antigen.
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Antigen processing
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Cells, such as macrophages, that present (express onto their surfaces) portions of the antigens they have digested.
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Antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
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A molecule on the surface of a helper T cell that responds to a specific antigen. There is a specific TCR for every antigen to which the human body may be exposed.
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T cell receptor (TCR)
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The body's response to cellular injury; also called the inflammatory response. In contrast to the immune response, inflammation develops swiftly, is nonspecific (attacks all unwanted substances in the same way), and is temporary, leading to healing.
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Inflammation
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Four Functions of Inflammation
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- Destroy and remove unwanted substances
- Wall off the infected and inflamed area - Stimulate the immune response - Promote healing |
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Large cells, resembling bags of granules, that reside near blood vessels. When stimulated by injury, chemicals, or allergic responses, they activate the inflammatory response by degranulation (emptying their granules into the extracellular environment) and synthesis (construction of leukotrienes and prostaglandins).
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Mast cells
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Mast Cell Functions
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- Degranulation
- Synthesis |
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The emptying of granules from the interior of a mast cell into the extracellular environment.
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Degranulation
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A substance released during the degranulation of mast cells and also released by basophils that, through constriction and dilation of blood vessels, increases blood flow to the injury site and also increases the permeability of vessel walls.
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Histamine
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A substance released by platelets that, through constriction and dilation of blood vessels, affects blood flow to an injured or affected site.
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Serotonin
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Chemicals that attract white cells to the site of inflammation, a process called chemotaxis.
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Chemotactic factors
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Also called slow-reacting substances of anaphylaxis (SRS-A); substances synthesized by mast cells during inflammatory response that cause vasodilation, vascular permeability, and chemotaxis.
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Leukotrienes
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Substances synthesized by mast cells during inflammatory response that cause vasodilation, vascular permeability, and chemotaxis and also cause pain.
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Prostaglandins
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Complex sequences of actions triggered by proteins present in the blood. For example, immunoglobulins (antibodies) are plasma proteins. Three plasma protein systems involved in inflammation are the complement system, the coagulation system, and the kinin system.
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Plasma protein systems
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A series of actions triggered by a first action and culminating in a final action - typical of the actions caused by plasma proteins involved in the complement, coagulation, and kinin systems.
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Cascade
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A group of plasma proteins (the complement proteins) that are dormant in the blood until activated, as by antigen-antibody complex formation, by products released by bacteria, or by components of other plasma protein systems. When activated, the complement system is involved in most of the events of inflammatory response.
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Complement system
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Plasma Protein Systems
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- In immune response:
= Immunoglobulins - In inflammatory response: = Complement system = Coagulation system = Kinin system |
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A plasma protein system, also called the clotting system, that results in formation of a protein called fibrin. Fibrin forms a network that walls off an infection and forms a clot that stops bleeding and serves as a foundation for repair and healing of a wound.
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Coagulation system
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A plasma protein system that produces bradykinin, a substance that works with prostaglandins to cause pain. It also has actions similar to those of histamine (vasodilation and bronchospasm, increased permeability of the blood vessels, and chemotaxis) but acts more slowly than histamine, thus being more important during later stages of inflammation.
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Kinin system
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Substances that penetrate vessel walls to move into the surrounding tissues.
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Exudate
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Inflammation Sequence
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- Vascular response
- Increased permeability - Exudation of white cells |
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Adherence of white cells to vessel walls in the early stages of inflammation.
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Margination
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Movement of white cells out of blood vessels through gaps in the vessel walls that are created when inflammatory processes case the vessel walls in constrict.
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Diapedesis
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White cells with multiple nuclei that have the appearance of a bag of granules; also called polymorphonuclear cells. Types of granulocytes are neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
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Granulocytes
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White cells with a single nucleus; the largest normal blood cells. During inflammation, monocytes mature and grow to several times their original size, becoming macrophages.
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Monocytes
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Cells that have the ability to ingest other cells and substances, such as bacteria and cell debris. All granulocytes and monocytes are phagocytes.
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Phagocytes
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Granular white blood cells (the most numerous of the white blood cells) that are readily attracted to the site of inflammation where they quickly attack and phagocytose bacteria and other undesirable substances.
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Neutrophils
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Large white blood cells (matured monocytes) that will ingest and destroy, or partially destroy, invading organisms.
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Macrophages
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Granular white blood cells that attack parasites and also help to control and limit the inflammatory response.
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Eosinophils
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Granular white blood cells that, similarly to mast cells release histamine and other chemicals that control constriction and dilation of blood vessels during inflammation.
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Basophils
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Fragments of cytoplasm that circulate in the blood and work with components of the coagulation system to promote blood clotting. Platelets also release serotonin, a vasoconstrictive substance.
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platelets
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Cells that secrete collagen, a critical factor in wound healing.
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Fibroblasts
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A liquid mixture of dead cells, bits of dead tissue, and tissue fluid that may accumulate in inflamed tissues.
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Pus
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A tumor or growth that forms when foreign bodies that cannot be destroyed by macrophages are surrounded and walled off.
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Granuloma
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Outcomes of Healing
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- Resolution - complete restoration of normal structure
- Repair - scar formation |
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The complete healing of a wound and return of tissues to their normal structure and function; the ending of inflammation with no scar formation.
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Resolution
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Regrowth through cell proliferation.
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Regeneration
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Healing of a wound with scar tissue.
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Repair
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The cleaning up or removal of debris, dead cells, and scabs from a wound, principally through phagocytosis.
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Debridement
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Simple healing of a minor wound without granulation or pus formation.
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Primary intention
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Complex healing of a larger wound involving sealing of the wound through scab formation, granulation or filling of the wound, and constriction of the wound.
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Secondary intention
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Filling out a wound by the inward growth of healthy tissues from the wound edges.
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Granulation
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Growth of epithelial cells under a scab, separating it from the wound and providing a protective covering for the healing wound.
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Epithelialization
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Inward movement of wound edges during healing that eventually brings the wound edges together.
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Contraction
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Continuing processes of wound reconstruction that may occur over a period of years after initial healing, as scar tissue is remodeled and strengthened.
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Maturation
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An exaggerated and harmful immune response; an umbrella term for allergy, autoimmunity, and isoimmunity.
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Hypersensitivity
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Exaggerated immune response to an environmental antigen.
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Allergy
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An immune response to self-antigens, which the body normally tolerates.
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Autoimmunity
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An immune response to antigens from another member of the same species, for example Rh reactions between a mother and infant or transplant rejection; also called alloimmunity.
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Isoimmunity
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A swiftly occurring secondary hypersensitivity reaction (one that occurs after reexposure to an antigen). Immediate hypersensitivity reactions are usually more severe than delayed reactions. The swiftest and most severe such reaction is anaphylaxis.
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Immediate hypersensitivity reaction
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A hypersensitivity reaction that takes place after the elapse of some time following reexposure to an antigen. Delayed hypersensitivity reactions are usually less severe than immediate reactions.
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Delayed hypersensitivity reaction
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Four Types of Hypersensitivity Reactions
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- Type I - IgE reactions
- Type II - Tissue-specific reactions - Type III - Immune-complex mediated reactions - Type IV - Cell-mediated tissue reactions |
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Three Hypersensitivity Targets
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- Environmental antigens - targeting by allergic responses
- Self-antigens - targeted by autoimmune responses - Other person's antigens - targeted by isoimmune responses |
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Two Types of Immune Deficiency
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- Congenital (inborn)
- Acquired (after birth) |
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Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, a group of signs, symptoms, and disorders that often develop as a consequence of HIV infection.
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AIDS
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Human immunodeficiency virus, a virus that breaks down the immune defenses, making the body vulnerable to a variety of infections and disorders.
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HIV
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A state of physical or psychological arousal to stimulus.
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Stress
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The stimulus or cause of stress.
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Stressor
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A sequence of stress response stages: stage I, alarm; stage II, resistance or adaptation; stage III, exhaustion.
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General adaptation syndrome (GAS)
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General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
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- Stage I - Alarm
- Stage II - Resistance, or adaptation - Stage III - Exhaustion |
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A chemical or physical disturbance in the cells of tissue fluid produced by a change in external environment or within the body.
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Physiological stress
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Homeostasis; the tendency of the body to maintain a net constant composition although the components of the body's internal environment are always changing.
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Dynamic steady state
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The continual synthesis and breakdown of body substances that results in the dynamic steady state.
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Turnover
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The interactions of psychological, neurological/endocrine, and immunological factors that contribute to alteration of the immune system as an outcome of a stress response that is not quickly resolved.
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Psychoneuroimmunological regulation
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Changes within the body initiated by a stressor.
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Stress response
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Hormones Produced in Response to Stress
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- Catecholamines (norepinephrine and epinephrine)
- Cortisol - Beta endorphins - Growth hormone - Prolactin |
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A steroid hormone released by the adrenal cortex that regulates the metabolism of fats, carbohydrates, sodium, potassium, and proteins and also has an anti-inflammatory effect.
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Cortisol
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