Vocabulary For The Ib Psychology Test (Large)

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empirical

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relying on or derived from observation, experimentation, or measurement

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psychology

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the discipline concerned with behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism's physical state, mental state, and external environment

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Critical thinking

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the ability and willingness to assess claims and make judgments on the basis of well-supported reasons and evidence, rather than emotion or anecdote

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Functionalism

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an early psychological approach that emphasized the function or purpose of behavior and consciousness

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psychoanalysis

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a theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy, originally developed by Sigmund Freud, which emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts

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basic psychology

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the study of psychological issues in order to seek knowledge for its own sake rather than for its practical application

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Applied psychology

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the study of psychological issues that have direct practical significance and the application of psychological findings

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biological perspective

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a psychological approach that emphasizes bodily events and changes associated with actions, feelings, and thoughts

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learning perspective

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a psychological approach that emphasizes how the environment and experience affect a person's or animal's actions' it includes behaviorism and social-cognitive learning theories

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social-cognitive learning theory

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the theory that behavior is learned and maintained through observation and imitation of others, positive consequences, and cognitive processes such as plans and perceptions

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cognitive perspective

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a psychological approach that emphasizes mental processes in perception, memory, language, problem solving, and other areas of behavior

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Sociocultural perspective

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a psychological approach that emphasizes personal growth and the achievement of human potential , rather than the scientific understanding and assessment of behavior

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feminist psychology

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a psychological approach that analyzes the influence of social inequities on gender relations and on the behavior of the two sexes

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reductionism

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the process of reducing a phenomenon to a single type of explanation or to a limited set of elements or a particular type

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theory

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an organized system of assumptions and principles that purports to explain a specified set of phenomena and their interrelationships

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hypothesis

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a statement that attempts to predict or to account for a set of phenomena; scientific hypotheses specify relationships among events or variables and are empirically tested

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operational definition

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a precise definition of a term in a hypothesis, which specifies the operations for observing and measuring the process or phenomenon being defined

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principle of falsifiability

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the principle that a scientific theory must make predictions that are specific enough to expose the theory to the possibility of disconfirmation; that is, the theory must predict not only what will happen, but also what will not happen

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descriptive methods

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methods that yield descriptions of behavior but not necessarily causal explanations

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case study

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a detailed description of a particular individual being studied or treated

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observational studies

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a study in which the researcher carefully and systematically observes and records behavior without interfering with the behavior; it may involve either naturalistic or laboratory observation

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psychological tests

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procedures used to measure and evaluate personality traits, emotional states, aptitudes, interests, abilities, and values

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standardization

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in test construction, to develop uniform procedures for giving and scoring a test

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norms (in testing)

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in test construction, established standards of performance

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reliability

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In test construction, the consistency of scores derived from a test, from one time and place to another

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validity

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the ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure

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surveys

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questionnaires and interviews that ask people directly about their experience, attitudes, or opinions

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representative sample

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a group f students, selected from a population for study, which matches the population on important characteristics such as age and sex

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volunteer bias

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a shortcoming of findings derived from a sample of volunteers instead of a representative sample; the volunteers may differ from those who did not volunteer

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correlation study

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a descriptive study that looks for a consistent relationship between two phenomena

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correlation

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a measure of how strongly two variables are related to one another

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variables

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characteristics of behavior or experience that can be measured or described by a numeric scale; variables are manipulated and assessed in scientific studies

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positive correlation

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an association between increases in one variable and increases in another

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negative correlation

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an association between increases in one variable and decreases in another

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coefficient of a correlation

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a measure of correlation that ranges in value from -1.00 to +1.00

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experiment

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a controlled test of a hypothesis in which the researcher manipulates one variable to discover its effect on another

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independent variable

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a variable that an experimenter manipulates

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dependent variable

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a variable that an experimenter predicts will be affected by manipulations of the independent variable

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control condition

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in an experiment, a comparison condition in which subjects are not exposed to the same treatment of the experimental condition

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random assignment

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a procedure for assigning people to experimental and control groups in which each individual has the same probability as any other or being assigned to a given group

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placebo

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an inactive substance or fake treatment used as a control in an experiment or given by a medical practitioner to a patient

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single-blind study

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an experiment in which subjects do not know whether they are in an experimental or a control group

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experimenter effects

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unintended changes in subjects' behavior due to cues inadvertently given by the experimenter

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double-blind study

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an experiment in which neither the subjects nor the individuals running the study show which subjects are in the control group and which are in the experimental group until after the results are tallied

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field research

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descriptive or experimental research conducted in a neutral setting outside the laboratory

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descriptive statistics

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statistical procedures that organize and summarize a body of data

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arithmetic mean

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an average that is calculated by adding up a set of quantities and dividing the sum by the total number of quantities in the set

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standard deviation

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a commonly used measure of variability that indicates the average difference between scores in a distribution and their mean

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inferential statistics

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statistical procedures that allow researches to draw inference about how statistically meaningful a study's results are

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significance tests

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statistical tests that show how likely it is that a study's results reoccurred merely by chance

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nativists

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emphasized genes and inborn characteristics of human behavior

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empiricists

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focused on learning and experience as an explanation for human behavior

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evolutionary psychology

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a field of psychology emphasizing evolutionary mechanisms that may help explain human commonalities in cognition, development, emotion, social practices, and other areas of behavior

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behavioral genetics

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an interdisciplinary field of study concerned with the genetic bases of behavior and personality

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set-point theory

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the genetically influenced weight range for an individual , thought to be maintained by a biological mechanism that regulates food intake, fat reserves, and metabolism

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genes

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the functional units of heredity; they are composed of DNA and specify the structure of proteins

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chromosomes

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within every body cell, rod-shaped structures that carry the genes

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DNA

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The chromosomal molecule that transfers genetic characteristics by way of coded instructions for the structure of proteins

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genome

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the full set of genes in each cell of an organism

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linkage studies

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studies that look for patterns of inheritance of genetic markers in large families in which a particular condition is common

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genetic markers

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a segment of DNA that varies among individuals, has a known location on a chromosome, and can function as a genetic landmark for a gene involved in a physical or mental condition

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evolutionary psychology

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a change in gene frequencies within a population over many generations; a mechanism by which genetically influence characteristics of a population may change

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mutate

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when an error occurs in the copying of the original DNA sequence, resulting in spontaneous changes in the genes

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natural selection

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the evolutionary process in which individuals with genetically influenced traits that are adaptive in a particular environment tend to survive and reproduce in greater numbers than other individuals; as a result, their traits become more common in the population

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Charles Darwin

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British naturalist who wrote on the origin of species and asserted that thee fate of genetic variations depended on the environment

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reflexes

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simple, automatic responses to specific stimuli

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practice play

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teaches children how to get along with others and gives them a chance to practice their motor and linguistic skills

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sensation

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the detection of physical energy emitted or reflected by physical objects; it occurs when energy in the external environment or the body stimulates receptors in the sense organs

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perception

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the process by which the brain organizes and interprets sensory information

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feature-detector cells

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cells that process special features of the visual world within the brain

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visual cliff

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a test used to understand an infant's perception of depth

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neurocultural theory of emotion

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emphasizes that two factors are involved in emotional expression; universal neurophysiology in facial muscles associated with certain emotions, and culture-specific variations in the expression of emotion

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synchrony

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the adjustment of one person's nonverbal behavior to coordinate with another's

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attachment

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a deep emotional tie to caregivers

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contact comfort

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the pleasure of being touched and held; the basis of an infant's first attachment

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language

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a system that combines meaningless elements such as sounds and gestures to form structured utterances that convey meaning

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surface structure

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the form in which a sentence is spoken or signed

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deep structure

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the meaning of a sentence which is spoken or signed

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syntax

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rules of grammar

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language acquisition device

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an innate mental module that facilitates the young child's development of language

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critical period

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a make or break period in which children must be exposed to language and must have opportunities to practice their emerging linguistic

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psycholinguists

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researchers who study the psychology of language

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universal grammar

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the brain is disposed to notice the core features common to all languages

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over regularizations

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when a child reduces a sentence to their own two-word sentence

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sociobiology

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an interdisciplinary field that emphasizes evolutionary explanations of social behavior in animals, including human beings

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heritability

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a statistical estimate of the proportion of the total variance in some trait that is attributable to genetic differences among individuals within a group

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monozygotic twins

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twins that develop when a fertilized egg divides into two parts that develop into separate embryos

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dizygotic twins

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twins that develop from two separate eggs fertilized by separate sperm; they are no more alike genetically than are any other pair of siblings

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intelligence quotient

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a measure of intelligence originally computed by dividing a person's mental age by his or her chronological age and multiplying the result by 100; it is now derived from norms provided for standardized intelligence tests

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temperament

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a characteristic of an individual, describing a habitual way of behaving, thinking, and feeling

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factor analysis

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a statistical method for analyzing the intercorrelations among different measures or test scores' clusters of measures of scores that are highly correlated are assumed to measure the same underlying trait or ability

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big five personality traits

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a small cluster of personality traits that remain stable over a person's lifetime; these have also been identified all over the world.

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central nervous system

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the portion of the nervous system consisting of the brain and the spinal cord

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spinal cord

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a collection of neurons and supportive tissue running from the base of the brain down the center of the back, protected by the spinal column

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peripheral nervous system

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all portions of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord; it includes sensory and motor nerves

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sensory nerves

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carries messages from special receptors in the skin, muscles, and other internal and external sense organs to the spinal cord

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motor nerves

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carries orders from the central nervous system to muscles, glands, and internal organs

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somatic nervous system

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the subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that connects to sensory receptors and to skeletal muscles; sometimes called the skeletal nervous system

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autonomic nervous system

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the subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that regulates the internal organs and glands

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biofeedback

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a method for learning to control bodily functions, including ones usually thought to be involuntary, by attending to feedback from an instrument that monitors the function and that signals changes in it

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sympathetic nervous system

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the subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes bodily resources and increases the output of energy during emotion and stress

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parasympathetic nervous system

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the subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that operators during relaxed states and that conserves energy

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neuron

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nerve cells

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glial cells

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nervous system cells that aid the neurons by providing them with nutrients, insulating them, and removing cellular debris when they die

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dendrites

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a neuron's branches that receive information from other neurons and transmit it toward the cell body

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cell body

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the part of the neuron that keeps it alive and determines whether it will fire

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axon

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a neuron's extending fiber that conducts impulses away from the cell body and transmits them to other neurons

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axon terminals

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the axon's end branches

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myelin sheath

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a fatty insulation that may surround the axon of a neuron

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nerve

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a bundle of nerve fibers in the peripheral nervous system

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neurgenesis

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when immature cells (precursor cells) give birth to new neurons

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synaptic cleft

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where the axon terminal of one neuron nearly touches a dendrite or cell body of another

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synapse

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the site where a nerve impulse is transmitted from one nerve cell to another; it includes the axon terminal, the synaptic cleft, and receptor sites in the membrane of the receiving cell

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plasticity

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the term referring to the brain's flexibility

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action potential

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a brief change in electrical voltage which produces an electric current or impulse

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synaptic vesicles

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tiny sacs in the tip of the axon terminal

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neurotransmitter

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a chemical substance that is released by a transmitting neuron at the synapse and that alters the activity of the receiving neuron

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receptor sites

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special molecules in the membrane of the receiving neuron

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excitatory

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a voltage shift in a positive direction

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inhibitory

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a voltage shift in a negative direction

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all-or-none principle

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a neuron either fires or it doesn't

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serotonin

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a neurotransmitter that affects neurons involved in sleep, appetite, sensory perception, temperature regulation, pain suppression, and mood

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dopamine

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a neurotransmitter that affects neurons involved in voluntary movement, learning, memory, and emotion

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acetylcholine

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a neurotransmitter that affects neurons involved in muscle action, cognitive functioning, memory, and emotion

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Norepinephrine

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neurons involved in increased heart rate and the slowing of intestinal activity during stress, and neurons involved in learning, memory, dreaming, waking from sleep, and emotion

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GABA

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functions as the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain

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Glutamate

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functions as an important excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain and plays a critical role in long-term memory

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Alzheimer's disease

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a devastating condition that leads to memory loss, personality changes, and eventually disintegration of all physical and mental abilities

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Parkinson's disease

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a condition characterized by tremors, muscular spasms, and increasing muscular rigidity

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blood-brain barrier

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a system of densely packed capillary and glial cells whose function is to prevent potentially harmful substances from entering the brain

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endorphins

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chemical substances in the nervous system that are similar in structure and action to opiates; they are involved in pain reduction, pleasure, and memory, and are known technically as endogenous opiod peptides

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neuromodulators

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some endorphins which alter the effects of neurotransmitters

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hormones

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chemical substances, secreted by organs called glands, that affect the functioning of other organs

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endocrine glands

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internal organs that produce hormones and release them into the bloodstream

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adrenal hormones

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hormones that are produced by the adrenal glands and that are involved in emotions and stress; they include cortisol, epinephrine and norepinephrine

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cortisol

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an adrenal hormone that increases blood-sugar levels and boosts energy which is produced in the outer part of the adrenal gland

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epinephrine

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an adrenal hormone that is popularly known as adrenaline, produced in the inner part of the adrenal gland

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norepinephrine

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an adrenal hormone produced in the inner part of the adrenal gland

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melatonin

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a hormone secreted by the pineal gland, that is involved in the regulation of daily biological rhythms

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biological rhythm

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a periodic, more or less regular fluctuation in a biological system; it may or may not have psychological implications

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circadian rhythm

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a biological rhythm with a period of about 24 hours

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suprachiasmatic nucleus

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an area of the brain containing a biological clock that governs circadian rhythms

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sex hormones

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hormones that regulate the development and functioning of reproductive organs and that stimulate the development of male and female sexual characteristics; they include androgens, estrogens, and progesterone

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androgens

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masculinizing hormones

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estrogen

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feminizing hormones

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progesterone

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contributes to the growth and development of the uterine lining in preparation for a fertilized egg

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lesion method

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damaging or removing sections of the brains of animals, then observing the effects

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electrodes

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devices that detect the electrical activity or millions of neurons in particular regions of the brain and are widely used in research and medical diagnosis

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electroencephalogram

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a recording of neural activity detected by electrodes

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positron-emission tomography

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a method of analyzing biochemical activity in the brain, using injections of a glucose-like substance containing a radioactive element

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magnetic resonance imaging

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a method for studying body and brain tissue. Using magnetic fields and special radio receivers

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localization of function

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specialization of particular brain areas for particular functions

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brain stem

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the part of the brain at the top of the spinal cord, consisting of the medulla and the Pons

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medulla

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a structure in the brain stem responsible for certain autonomic functions, such as breathing and heart rate

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Pons

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a structure in the brain stem involved in, among other things, sleeping, waking, and dreaming

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reticular activating system

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a dense network of neurons found in the core of the brain stem; it arouses the cortex and screens incoming information

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cerebellum

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a brain structure that regulates movement and balance, and that is involved in the learning of certain kinds of simple responses

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thalamus

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a brain structure that relates motor impulses to the spinal cord and sensory messages to the cerebral cortex

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olfactory bulb

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the private switching station for the sense of smell

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hypothalamus

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a brain structure involved in emotions and drives vital to survival, such as fear, hunger, thirst, and reproduction; it regulates the autonomic nervous system

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pituitary glands

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a small endocrine gland at the base of the brain, which releases many hormones and regulates other endocrine glands

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limbic system

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a group of brain areas involved in emotional reactions and motivated behavior

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amygdale

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a brain structure involved in the arousal and regulation of emotion, particularly fear, and the initial emotional response to sensory information

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hippocampus

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a brain structure involved in the storage of new information in memory

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cerebrum

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the largest brain structure, consisting of the upper part of the brain; it is in charge of most sensory, motor, and cognitive processes

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cerebral hemispheres

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the two halves of the cerebrum

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corpus callosum

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the bundle of nerve fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres

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lateralization

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specialization of the two cerebral hemispheres for particular operations

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cerebral cortex

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a collection of several thin layers of cells covering the cerebrum; it is largely responsible for higher mental functions

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occipital lobes

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lobes at the lower back part of the brain's cerebral cortex; they contain areas that receive visual information

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visual cortex

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where visual signals are processed

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parietal lobes

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lobes at the top of the brain's cerebral cortex; they contain areas that receive information on pressure, pain, touch, and temperature

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somatosensory cortex

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an area that receives information on pressure, pain, touch, and temperature

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temporal lobes

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lobes at the sides of the cerebral cortex, just above the ears; they contain areas involved in hearing, memory, perception, emotion, and language comprehension

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auditory cortex

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an area where sounds are processed

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wernicke's area

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an area of the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension

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frontal lobes

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lobes at the front of the brain's cerebral cortex; they contain areas involved in short-term memory, higher-order thinking, initiative, social judgment and speech production

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motor cortex

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an area that issues order to 600 muscles of the body that produce voluntary movement

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broca's area

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an area involved in speech production

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association cortex

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areas of the brain that are silent when stimulated, but are involved in higher mental processes

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prefrontal cortex

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the forward most part of the frontal lobes involved in personality

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split-brain surgery

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the process of cutting the corpus callosum to reduce or eliminate seizures in epileptic patients

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hemispheric dominance

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a term for when one brain hemisphere is more active during specified tasks than another

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long-term potentiation

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a long-lasting increase in the strength of synaptic responsiveness, thought to be a biological mechanisms of long-term memory

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declarative memories

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memories of facts and events

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procedural memories

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memories for skills and habits

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rapid eye movement sleep

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sleep periods characterized by quick eye movements, loss of muscle, tone, and dreaming

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non-REM sleep

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sleep periods of fewer eye movements

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alpha waves

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brain waves that have a regular, slow rhythm and a high amplitude

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delta waves

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very slow brain waves with high peaks

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sleep spindles

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short bursts of rapid, high-peaking brain waves

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activation-synthesis theory

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the theory that dreaming results from the cortical synthesis and interpretation of neural signals triggered by activity in the lower part of the brain

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behaviorism

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an approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior

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conditioning

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a basic kind of learning that involves associations between environmental stimuli and the organisms' responses

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unconditioned stimulus

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the classical - conditioning term for a stimulus that elicits a reflexive responses in the absence of learning

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unconditioned response

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the classical conditioning term for reflexive responses elicited by a stimulus in the absence of learning

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conditioned stimulus

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the classical - conditioning term for an initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned responses after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus

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conditioned response

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the classical-conditioning term for a response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus; it occurs after the conditioned stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimulus

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classical conditioning

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the process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a similar or related response; also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning

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extinction

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the weakening eventual disappearance of a learned response; in classical conditioning, it occurs when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus

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spontaneous recovery

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the reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction

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higher-order conditioning

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in classical conditioning, a procedure in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus through association with an already established conditioned stimulus

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stimulus generalization

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after conditioning, the tendency to respond to s stimulus that resembles one involved in the original conditioning; in classical conditioning, it occurs when a stimulus that resembles the CS elicits the Cr

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stimulus discrimination

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the tendency to respond differently to two or more similar stimuli; in classical condition, it occurs when a stimulus similar to the CS fails to evoke the CR

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counterconditioning

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in classical conditioning, the process of pairing a conditioned stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a response that is incompatible with an unwanted conditioned response

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operant conditioning

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the process by which a response becomes more likely to occur or less so, depending on its consequences

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E.L. Thorndike

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a psychologist who set the stage for radical behaviorism by observing cats as they tried to escape from a complex "puzzle box"

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law of effect

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a law that states that effect is the result of a satisfactory or unsatisfactory state on a learned connection

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B.F. Skinner

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a psychologist who asserted than an operant is followed by a reinforcing stimulus, the strength of which will increase or decrease, depending on its schedule of reinforcement

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john Watson

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a psychologist who asserted that one could predict responses from a knowledge of stimulus conditions

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reinforcement

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the process by which a stimulus or event strengthens or increase the probability of the response that it follows

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punishment

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the process by which a stimulus or event weakens or reduces the probability of that response that it follows

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primary reinforcer

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a stimulus that is inherently reinforcing, typically satisfying a physiological need; an example is food

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primary punisher

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a stimulus that is inherently punishing; an example is electric shock

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secondary reinforcer

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a stimulus that is inherently reinforcing properties through association with other reinforcements

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secondary punisher

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a stimulus that has acquired punishing properties through association with other punishers

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positive reinforcement

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a reinforcement procedure in which a response is followed by the presentation of, or increase in intensity of, a reinforcing stimulus; as a result, the response becomes strong or more likely to occur

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negative reinforcement

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a reinforcement procedure in which a response is followed by the removal, delay, or decrease in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus; as results, the response becomes stronger or more likely to occur

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extinction

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the weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response; in operant conditioning, it occurs when a response is no longer followed by a reinforcer

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discriminative stimulus

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a stimulus that signals when a particular response is likely to be followed by a certain type of consequence

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stimulus control

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control over the occurrence of a response by discriminative stimulus

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continuous reinforcement

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a reinforcement schedule in which a particular response is always reinforced

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intermittent schedule of reinforcement

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a reinforcement schedule in which a particular response is sometimes but not always reinforced

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shaping

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an operant conditioning procedure in which successive approximation of a desired response are reinforced

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successive approximations

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in the operant-conditioning procedure of shaping, behaviors that ordered in terms of increasing similarity or closeness to the desired response

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behavior modification

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the application of conditioning techniques to teach respond or reduce or eliminate maladaptive or problematic behavior

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extrinsic reinforcers

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reinforcers that are not inherently related to the activity being reinforced, such a s money, prizes, and praise

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intrinsic reinforcers

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reinforcers that are inherently related to the activity reinforced, such as enjoyment of the task, and the satisfaction of accomplishment

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insight

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a form of problem solving that appears to involve the sudden understanding of how elements of a situation are related or can be reorganized to achieve a solution

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social-cognitive learning theories

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theories that emphasize hwo behavior is learned and maintained through the interaction between individuals and their environments, an interaction strongly influenced by such cognitive processes as observations, expectations, percpetions, and motivational beliefs

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latents learning

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a form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without obvious reinforcement

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observational learining

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a process in which an individual learns new responses by observing the behavior of another rather than through direct experience; in behaviorism, it is called vicarious conditioning

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motivation

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a process within a person or animal, which theyn causes movement toward a goal or away from an unpleasant situation

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self-fulfilling prophecy

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an expectation that comes true because of the tendency of the person holding it to act in ways that bring it about

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locus of control

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a general expectation about whether the results of a person's actions are under his or her control or beyond the person's control

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self-efficacy

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a person's belief that he or she is capable of producing desired results, such as mastering new skills and reaching goals

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performance goals

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goals framed in terms of performing well in front of others, being judged favorably, and avoiding criticism

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mastery goals

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goals framed in terms of increasing one's competence and skills

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gender identity

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the fundamental sense of being male or female; it is independent of whether the person conforms to the social and cultural rule of gender

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gendrery typing

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the process by which children learn the abilities, interests, pesonality traits, and behaviors associated with being masculine or feminine in their culture

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gender schema

Back 241

a mental network of knowledge, beliefs, metaphors, and expections about what it means to be male or female

Front 242

power assertion

Back 242

a method of correcting a child's behavior wiin which the parent uses pu nishment and authority

Front 243

induction

Back 243

a method of correcting a child'sbehavior in which the parent appeals to the child's own abilities, sense of responsibilty, and feelings for others

Front 244

concept

Back 244

a mental category that groups objects, relations, activities, abstractions, or qualities having common properties

Front 245

basic concept

Back 245

concepts that have a moderate number of instances and that are easier to acquire than those having few or many instances

Front 246

prototype

Back 246

an especially representative example of a concept

Front 247

proposition

Back 247

a unit of meaning that is made up of concepts and expresses a single idea

Front 248

cognitive schema

Back 248

an integrated mental network of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations concerning a particular topic or aspect of the world

Front 249

mental image

Back 249

a mental representation that mirrors or resembles the thing it represents; mental images can occur in many and perhaps all sensory modalities

Front 250

subconscious processes

Back 250

mental processes occurring outside of conscious awareness but accessible to consciousness when necessary

Front 251

nonconscious processes

Back 251

mental processes occurring outside of and not available to conscious awareness

Front 252

mindlessness

Back 252

mental inertia in which keeps people from recognizing when a change in context requires a change in behavior

Front 253

reasoning

Back 253

the drawing of conclusion or inferences from observations, facts, or assumptions

Front 254

formal reasoning

Back 254

when information is needed to draw a conclusion or reaching a solution is specified clearly and there is a single right answer

Front 255

algorithm

Back 255

a problem solving guaranteed to produce a solution even if the user does not know how it works

Front 256

deductive reasoning

Back 256

a form of reasoning in which a conclusion follows necessarily from certain premises; if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true

Front 257

premise

Back 257

a set of observations or propositions

Front 258

syllogism

Back 258

a simple argument consisting of two premise and a conclusion

Front 259

inductive reasoning

Back 259

a form of reasoning in which that premises provide support for a conclusion, but it is still possible for the conclusion to be false

Front 260

informal reasoning

Back 260

there may be no clearly correct solution in this type of reasoning

Front 261

heuristics

Back 261

a rule of thumb that suggests a course of action or guides problem solving but does not guarantee an optimal solution

Front 262

dialectical reasoning

Back 262

a process in which opposing facts for ideas are weighted and compared, with a view to determining the best solution or to resolving differences

Front 263

mental set

Back 263

a tendency to solve problems using procedures that worked before on similar problems

Front 264

convergent thinking

Back 264

thinking aimed at finding a single correct answer to a problem

Front 265

divergent thinking

Back 265

mental exploration of unconventional alternatives in solving problems; by breaking mental sets, it tends to enhance creativity

Front 266

jean Piaget

Back 266

a psychologist who constructed the four stages of cognitive development

Front 267

assimilation

Back 267

in piglet's theory, the process of absorbing new information into existing cognitive structures

Front 268

accommodation

Back 268

in piglet's theory, the process of modifying existing cognitive structures in response to experience and new information

Front 269

sensorimotor stage

Back 269

involves the coordination of sensory information with bodily movements

Front 270

object permanence

Back 270

the understanding that an object continues to exist even when you cannot see it or touch it

Front 271

preoperational stage

Back 271

involves thinking that is missing formal abilities operations

Front 272

operations

Back 272

in piglet's theory, mental actions that are cognitively reversible

Front 273

egocentric thinking

Back 273

seeing the world from only your own point of view; the inability to take another person's perspective

Front 274

conservation

Back 274

the understanding that the physical properties of objects - such as the number of items in a cluster or the amount of liquid in a glass - can remain the same even when their forms or appearances change

Front 275

concrete operations stage

Back 275

when a child's thinking is grounded in concrete experiences and concepts, rather than abstractions and logical deductions

Front 276

formal operations stage

Back 276

when teenagers become capable of abstract thinking

Front 277

theory of mind

Back 277

a system of beliefs about the way your own mind and other people's minds work and of how people are affected by their beliefs and feelings; it emerges at age 4 or 5

Front 278

reflective judgment

Back 278

the ability to question judgments, evaluate evidence, relate the evidence to a theory or opinion, consider alternative interpretations, and reach conclusions that can be defined as reasonable or plausible, while standing ready to reassess those conclusions in the face of new information

Front 279

prereflective stages

Back 279

assuming that a correct answer always exists and that it can be obtained directly through the senses

Front 280

quasi-reflective stages

Back 280

when people recognize that some things cannot be known with absolute certainty, but they are not sure how to deal with these situations

Front 281

reflective stages

Back 281

coherence, their fit with the evidence, their usefulness, and so on

Front 282

hindsight bias

Back 282

the tendency to overestimate one's ability to have predicted an event once the outcome is known; the "I knew it all along" phenomenon

Front 283

availability heuristic

Back 283

the tendency to judge the probability of a type of event by how easy it is to think of examples or instances

Front 284

confirmation bias

Back 284

the tendency to look for or pay attention only to information that confirms one's own belief

Front 285

cognitive dissonance

Back 285

a state of tension that occurs when a person simultaneously holds tow cognitions that are psychologically inconsistent, or when a person's belief is incongruent with his or her behavior

Front 286

justification of effort

Back 286

the tendency of individuals to increase their liking for something that they have worked hard or suffered to attain; a common form of dissonance reduction

Front 287

cognitive ethology

Back 287

the study of cognitive processes in nonhuman animals

Front 288

anthropomorphism

Back 288

the tendency to falsely attribute human qualities to nonhuman beings

Front 289

anthropocentrism

Back 289

the tendency to think, mistakenly, that human beings have nothing in common with other animals

Front 290

memory

Back 290

refers to the capacity to retain and retrieve information, and also to the mental structures that account for this capacity

Front 291

reconstructive memory

Back 291

our tendency to alter complex information in ways that help us better understand the material, based on what we already know or think we know

Front 292

source amnesia

Back 292

the inability to distinguish what you originally experience from what you heard or were told about an event later

Front 293

flashbulb memories

Back 293

vivid recollections of emotional events

Front 294

confabulation

Back 294

confusing an event that happened to someone else with one that happened to you, or coming to believe that you remember something that never happened

Front 295

leading questions

Back 295

eyewitness accounts are heavily influenced by the way in which questions are put to the witness and by suggestive comments made during an interrogation or interview

Front 296

hypnosis

Back 296

a procedure in which the practitioner suggests changes in the sensations, perceptions, thoughts, feelings, or behavior of the subject, who cooperates by altering his or her normal cognitive functioning accordingly

Front 297

explicit memory

Back 297

conscious, international recollection of an event or of an item of information

Front 298

recall

Back 298

the ability to retrieve and reproduce from memory previously encountered material

Front 299

recognition

Back 299

the ability to identify previously encountered material

Front 300

implicit memory

Back 300

unconscious retention in memory, as evidenced by the effect of a previous experience or previously encountered information on current thoughts or actions.

Front 301

priming

Back 301

a method for measuring implicit memory in which a person reads or listens to information and is later tested to see whether the information affects performance on another type of task

Front 302

relearning method

Back 302

a method for measuring retention that compares the time required to relearn material with the time used in the initial learning of the material

Front 303

information-processing models

Back 303

storage in memory takes place in three intact memory systems

Front 304

encoding, storage, and retrieval

Back 304

the three premises behind the information-processing model of memory

Front 305

cognitive schemas

Back 305

mental networks of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations concerning particular topics or aspects of the world

Front 306

parallel distributed processing models

Back 306

an alternative to the information-processing model of memory, in which knowledge Is represented as connections among thousands of interacting processing units, distributed in a vast network, and all operating in parallel

Front 307

sensory memory

Back 307

a memory system that momentarily preserves extremely accurate images of sensory information

Front 308

pattern recognition

Back 308

the identification of a stimulus on the basis of information already contained in long-term memory

Front 309

short-term memory

Back 309

in the three box model of memory, a limited-capacity memory system involved in the retention of information for brief periods; it is also used to hold information retrieved from long-term memory for temporary use

Front 310

working memory

Back 310

the short-term memory functions in part as the mental equivalent of a scratch pad

Front 311

chunks

Back 311

a meaningful unit of information; it may be composed of smaller units

Front 312

long-term memory

Back 312

in the three-box model or memory, the memory system involve din long-term storage of information

Front 313

semantic categories

Back 313

one way to organize words or the concepts they represent

Front 314

network models

Back 314

model of long-term memory that represent its contents as a vast network of interrelated concepts and prepositions

Front 315

tip-of-the-tongue state

Back 315

information in your long-term memory that is temporarily unavailable for recall

Front 316

procedural memories

Back 316

memories for the performance of actions or skills

Front 317

declarative memories

Back 317

memories of facts, rules, concepts, and events they include semantic and episodic memoires

Front 318

semantic memories

Back 318

memories of general knowledge, including facts, rules, concepts, and propositions

Front 319

episodic memories

Back 319

memories of personally experienced events and the contexts in which they occurred

Front 320

serial-position effect

Back 320

the tendency for recall of the first and last items on a list to surpass recall of items in the middle of the list

Front 321

effortful encoding

Back 321

encoding information that requires effort

Front 322

automatic encoding

Back 322

encoding information automatically, without effort

Front 323

automatic encoding

Back 323

encoding information automatically, without effort

Front 324

maintenance rehearsal

Back 324

rote repetition of material in order to maintain its availability in memory

Front 325

elaborative rehearsal

Back 325

the association of new information with already stored knowledge and the analysis of the new information to make it memorable

Front 326

deep processing

Back 326

in the encoding of information, the processing of meaning, rather than simply the physical or sensory features of a stimulus

Front 327

mnemonics

Back 327

strategies and tricks for improving memory, such as the use of a verse or a formula

Front 328

consolidation

Back 328

stabilizing of information in long-term memory

Front 329

decay theory

Back 329

memory traces fade with time if they are not accessed now and then

Front 330

retroactive interference

Back 330

forgetting that occurs when recently learned material interferes with the ability to remember similar material stored previously

Front 331

proactive interference

Back 331

forgetting that occurs when previously stored material interferes with the ability to remember similar, more recently learned material

Front 332

retrieval cue

Back 332

items of information that can help us find the specific information that we are looking for

Front 333

cue-dependent forgetting

Back 333

the inability to retrieve information stored in memory because of insufficient cues for recall

Front 334

state-dependent memory

Back 334

the tendency to remember something when the rememberer is in the same physical or mental state as during the original learning experience

Front 335

psychogenic amnesia

Back 335

the partial or complete loss of memory for threatening information or traumatic experiences

Front 336

repression

Back 336

the selective, involuntary forgetting of information that causes the individual pain

Front 337

childhood amnesia

Back 337

the inability to remember events and experiences that occurred during the first two or three years of life

Front 338

narratives

Back 338

we compose these to simplify and make sense of our lives, which influences our plans, memories, love affairs, hatreds, ambitions, and dreams

Front 339

reminiscence bump

Back 339

as we age, certain periods of our lives stand out

Front 340

social norms

Back 340

rules that regulate human life, including social conventions, explicit laws, and implicit cultural standards

Front 341

role

Back 341

a given social position that is governed by a set of norms for proper behavior

Front 342

entrapment

Back 342

a gradual process in which individuals escalate their commitment to a course of action to justify their investment of time, money, or effort

Front 343

group think

Back 343

in close-knit groups, the tendency for all members to think alike for the sake of harmony and to suppress dissent

Front 344

generational identity

Back 344

the age range between 16 and 24 that represents the style and values of an adolescent's generation

Front 345

diffusion of responsibility

Back 345

in organized or anonymous groups, the tendency of members to avoid taking responsibility for actions or decisions because they assume that others will do so

Front 346

deindividuaition

Back 346

in group or crowds, the loss of awareness of one's own individuality and the abdication of mindful action

Front 347

altruism

Back 347

the willingness to take selfless or dangerous action on behalf of others

Front 348

social cognition

Back 348

an area in social psychology concerned with social influences on thought, memory, perception, and other cognitive processes

Front 349

attribution theory

Back 349

the theory that people are motivated to explain their own and others' behavior by attributing causes of that behavior to a situation or a disposition

Front 350

situational attributions

Back 350

when we identify the use of an action as something in the situation or environment

Front 351

dispositional attributions

Back 351

when we identify the cause of an action as something in the person

Front 352

fundamental attribution error

Back 352

the tendency, in explaining other people's behavior, to overestimate the influence of personality factors and underestimate the influence of the situation

Front 353

self-serving bias

Back 353

the tendency, in explaining one's own behavior, to take credit for one's good actions and rationalize one's mistakes

Front 354

just-world hypothesis

Back 354

the notion that many people need to believe that the world is fair and justice is served; that bad people are punished and good people are rewarded

Front 355

blaming the victim

Back 355

a justification I which someone is victimized because they did something to provoke it

Front 356

validity effect

Back 356

the tendency of people to believe that a statement is true or valid simply because it has been repeated many times

Front 357

coercive persuasion

Back 357

a persuasion technique quite similar to brainwashing

Front 358

need for achievement

Back 358

a learned motive to meet personal standards of success and excellence in a chosen area

Front 359

thematic apperception test

Back 359

a personality test that asks respondents to interpret a series of drawings showing ambiguous scenes of people; scored for various motives such as the needs for achievement, affiliation, or power

Front 360

incentive pay

Back 360

bonuses that are given upon the completion of a goal rather than as an automatic raise

Front 361

glass ceiling

Back 361

a barrier to promotion that is so subtle as to be transparent, yet strong enough to prevent advancement

Front 362

culture

Back 362

a program of shared rules that govern t=he behavior of members of a community or society, and a set of values, beliefs, and attitudes shared by most people of that community

Front 363

cultural psychologists

Back 363

psychologists who study the ways in which people are affected by the culture in which they live

Front 364

cross-cultural psychologists

Back 364

psychologists who compare members of different societies, searching for both their commonalities and their distinctive differences

Front 365

body language

Back 365

the nonverbal signals of body movement, posture, gesture, and gaze that people constantly express

Front 366

conversational distance

Back 366

how close people normally stand to one another when they are speaking

Front 367

monochromic culture

Back 367

cultures in which time is organized sequentially; schedules and deadlines are valued over people

Front 368

polychromic culture

Back 368

cultures in which time is organized horizontally; people tend to do several things at once and value relationships over schedules

Front 369

collectivist culture

Back 369

cultures in which the self is embedded in relationships, and who value group harmony over individual freedom

Front 370

individualist culture

Back 370

cultures in which the self is regarded as autonomous, and individual goals and wishes are prized above duty and relations with others

Front 371

social identity

Back 371

the part of a person's self-concept that is based on his or her identification with a nations, culture, or ethnic group or with gender roles or other roles in society

Front 372

ethnic identity

Back 372

a person's identification with a religious or ethnic group

Front 373

acculturation

Back 373

the process by which members of groups that are minorities in a given society comes to identify with and feel part of the mainstream culture

Front 374

bicultural

Back 374

when a person has strong ties to both their ethnicity and to the larger culture

Front 375

assimilation

Back 375

when people have weak feelings of ethnicity but a strong sense of acculturation

Front 376

ethnic separatists

Back 376

when people have a strong sense of ethnic identity but a weak sense of acculturation

Front 377

marginal

Back 377

when people are connected to neither their ethnicity nor the dominant culture

Front 378

culture-free tests

Back 378

tests that are nonverbal to accommodate various cultural responses

Front 379

culture-fair tests

Back 379

tests that incorporate knowledge and skills common to many different cultures

Front 380

stereotype threats

Back 380

a burden of doubt a person feels about his or her performance, due to negative stereotypes about his or her group's abilities

Front 381

sex

Back 381

refers to a person's anatomical identification

Front 382

gender

Back 382

the duties, rights, and behaviors a culture considers appropriate or inappropriate for males and females

Front 383

production

Back 383

matters pertaining the economy and the creation of food, clothing, and shelter

Front 384

social norms

Back 384

rules that regulate human life, including social conventions, explicit laws, and implicit cultural standards

Front 385

role

Back 385

a given social position that is governed by a set of norms for proper behavior

Front 386

entrapment

Back 386

a gradual process in which individuals escalate their commitment to a course of action to justify their investment of time, money, or effort

Front 387

group think

Back 387

in close-knit groups, the tendency for all members to think alike for the sake of harmony and to suppress dissent

Front 388

generational identity

Back 388

the age range between 16 and 24 that represents the style and values of an adolescent's generation

Front 389

diffusion of responsibility

Back 389

in organized or anonymous groups, the tendency of members to avoid taking responsibility for actions or decisions because they assume that others will do so

Front 390

deindividuaition

Back 390

in group or crowds, the loss of awareness of one's own individuality and the abdication of mindful action

Front 391

altruism

Back 391

the willingness to take selfless or dangerous action on behalf of others

Front 392

social cognition

Back 392

an area in social psychology concerned with social influences on thought, memory, perception, and other cognitive processes

Front 393

attribution theory

Back 393

the theory that people are motivated to explain their own and others' behavior by attributing causes of that behavior to a situation or a disposition

Front 394

situational attributions

Back 394

when we identify the use of an action as something in the situation or environment

Front 395

dispositional attributions

Back 395

when we identify the cause of an action as something in the person

Front 396

fundamental attribution error

Back 396

the tendency, in explaining other people's behavior, to overestimate the influence of personality factors and underestimate the influence of the situation

Front 397

self-serving bias

Back 397

the tendency, in explaining one's own behavior, to take credit for one's good actions and rationalize one's mistakes

Front 398

just-world hypothesis

Back 398

the notion that many people need to believe that the world is fair and justice is served; that bad people are punished and good people are rewarded

Front 399

blaming the victim

Back 399

a justification I which someone is victimized because they did something to provoke it

Front 400

validity effect

Back 400

the tendency of people to believe that a statement is true or valid simply because it has been repeated many times

Front 401

coercive persuasion

Back 401

a persuasion technique quite similar to brainwashing

Front 402

need for achievement

Back 402

a learned motive to meet personal standards of success and excellence in a chosen area

Front 403

thematic apperception test

Back 403

a personality test that asks respondents to interpret a series of drawings showing ambiguous scenes of people; scored for various motives such as the needs for achievement, affiliation, or power

Front 404

incentive pay

Back 404

bonuses that are given upon the completion of a goal rather than as an automatic raise

Front 405

glass ceiling

Back 405

a barrier to promotion that is so subtle as to be transparent, yet strong enough to prevent advancement

Front 406

culture

Back 406

a program of shared rules that govern t=he behavior of members of a community or society, and a set of values, beliefs, and attitudes shared by most people of that community

Front 407

cultural psychologists

Back 407

psychologists who study the ways in which people are affected by the culture in which they live

Front 408

cross-cultural psychologists

Back 408

psychologists who compare members of different societies, searching for both their commonalities and their distinctive differences

Front 409

body language

Back 409

the nonverbal signals of body movement, posture, gesture, and gaze that people constantly express

Front 410

conversational distance

Back 410

how close people normally stand to one another when they are speaking

Front 411

monochromic culture

Back 411

cultures in which time is organized sequentially; schedules and deadlines are valued over people

Front 412

polychromic culture

Back 412

cultures in which time is organized horizontally; people tend to do several things at once and value relationships over schedules

Front 413

collectivist culture

Back 413

cultures in which the self is embedded in relationships, and who value group harmony over individual freedom

Front 414

individualist culture

Back 414

cultures in which the self is regarded as autonomous, and individual goals and wishes are prized above duty and relations with others

Front 415

social identity

Back 415

the part of a person's self-concept that is based on his or her identification with a nations, culture, or ethnic group or with gender roles or other roles in society

Front 416

ethnic identity

Back 416

a person's identification with a religious or ethnic group

Front 417

acculturation

Back 417

the process by which members of groups that are minorities in a given society comes to identify with and feel part of the mainstream culture

Front 418

bicultural

Back 418

when a person has strong ties to both their ethnicity and to the larger culture

Front 419

assimilation

Back 419

when people have weak feelings of ethnicity but a strong sense of acculturation

Front 420

ethnic separatists

Back 420

when people have a strong sense of ethnic identity but a weak sense of acculturation

Front 421

marginal

Back 421

when people are connected to neither their ethnicity nor the dominant culture

Front 422

culture-free tests

Back 422

tests that are nonverbal to accommodate various cultural responses

Front 423

culture-fair tests

Back 423

tests that incorporate knowledge and skills common to many different cultures

Front 424

stereotype threats

Back 424

a burden of doubt a person feels about his or her performance, due to negative stereotypes about his or her group's abilities

Front 425

sex

Back 425

refers to a person's anatomical identification

Front 426

gender

Back 426

the duties, rights, and behaviors a culture considers appropriate or inappropriate for males and females

Front 427

production

Back 427

matters pertaining the economy and the creation of food, clothing, and shelter

Front 428

reproduction

Back 428

matters pertaining to the bearing, raising, and maturing of children

Front 429

cultures of honor

Back 429

a culture in which apparently small disputes and trivial insults put a man's reputation for toughness on the line, requiring him to respond with violence to restore his status

Front 430

ethnocentrism

Back 430

the belief that one's own ethnic group, nation, or religion, is superior to all others

Front 431

us-them thinking

Back 431

when two groups perceive themselves to be in competition

Front 432

stereotype threats

Back 432

a summary impressions of a group, in which a person believes that all members of the group share a common trait or traits

Front 433

prejudice

Back 433

consists of a negative stereotype and a strong, unreasonable dislike or hatred of a group its individual members

Front 434

symbolic racism

Back 434

when one group focuses not on dislike of another group but on societal stereotypes

Front 435

implicit prejudice

Back 435

prejudice that is nonconscious, automatic, and unintentional, and hence a true measure of a person's "real" prejudice

Front 436

implicit association

Back 436

a test which taps into people's unconscious associations between a stimulus and its degree of pleasantness or unpleasantness

Front 437

contact hypothesis

Back 437

in an effort to reduce prejudice, both groups must have opportunities to work and socialize together

Front 438

psychoanalysis

Back 438

a theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy developed by Sigmund Freud; it emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts

Front 439

intrapsychic

Back 439

within the mind or self

Front 440

id

Back 440

in psychoanalysis, the part of the mind containing inherited psychic energy, particularly sexual and aggressive instincts

Front 441

libido

Back 441

in psychoanalysis, the psychic energy that fuels the life or sexual instinct of the id

Front 442

ego

Back 442

in psychoanalysis, the part of the mind that represents reason, good sense, and rational self-control; it mediates between the id and the superego

Front 443

superego

Back 443

in psychoanalysis, the part of the mind that represents conscience, morality, and social standards

Front 444

defense mechanisms

Back 444

methods used by the ego to prevent unconscious anxiety or threatening thoughts from entering consciousness

Front 445

Oedipus complex

Back 445

in psychoanalysis; a conflict in which a child desires the parent of the other sex and views the same-sex parents as a rival; it is the key issue in the phallic stage of development

Front 446

castration anxiety

Back 446

in psychoanalysis, the boy's unconscious fear of castration by the powerful father; this anxiety motivates the resolution of the Oedipus complex

Front 447

inferiority complex

Back 447

to Alfred Adler, and inability to accept one's natural limitations; it occurs when the need for self-improvement is blocked or inhibited

Front 448

basic anxiety

Back 448

to Karen Horney, the feeling of being isolated and helpless in a hostile world; it is the motivation emotion in social relations

Front 449

collective unconscious

Back 449

to Carl Jung, the universal memories and experiences of humankind, represented in the symbols, stories, and images that occur across all cultures

Front 450

archetypes

Back 450

universal, symbolic images that appear in myths, art stories, and dreams; to Carl Jung, they reflect the collective unconscious

Front 451

object-relation theory

Back 451

a psychodynamic approach that emphasizes the importance of the infant's first two years and the baby's formative relationships, especially with other mother

Front 452

splitting

Back 452

in object-relations theory, the division of qualities into their opposites, as in the Good Mother versus the Bad Mother; it reflects an inability to understand that people are made up of good and bad qualities

Front 453

humanist psychology

Back 453

a psychological approach that emphasizes personal growth and the achievement of human potential rather than the scientific understanding and assessment of behavior

Front 454

unconditional positive regard

Back 454

to Carl Rogers, love or support given to another person, with no conditions attached

Front 455

existential psychology

Back 455

an approach to psychology that emphasizes free will and responsibility for one's actions, and the importance of struggling with the harsh realities of existence, such as the need to find meaning in life and to accept suffering and death

Front 456

mental disorder

Back 456

any behavior or emotional state that causes an individual great suffering or worry, is self-defeating or self-destructive, or is maladaptive and disrupts the person's relationships or the larger community

Front 457

generalized anxiety disorder

Back 457

a continuous state of anxiety marked by feelings of worry and dread, apprehension, difficulties in concentration, and signs of motor tension

Front 458

posttraumatic stress disorder

Back 458

an anxiety disorder in which a person who has experience a traumatic or life-threatening event has symptoms such a psychic numbing, reliving of the trauma, and increased physiological arousal

Front 459

panic disorder

Back 459

an anxiety disorder in which a person experiences recurring panic attacks, period of intense fear and feelings of impending doom or death, accompanied by physiological symptoms such a rapid breathing and pulse, and dizziness

Front 460

phobia

Back 460

an exaggerated, unrealistic fear of a specific situation, activity, or objects

Front 461

agoraphobia

Back 461

a set of phobias, often set off by a panic attack, involving the basic fear of being away from a safe place or person

Front 462

obsessive-compulsive disorder

Back 462

an anxiety disorder in which a person feels trapped in repetitive, persistent thoughts and repetitive, ritualized behaviors designed to reduce anxiety

Front 463

major depression

Back 463

a mood disorder involving disturbances in emotion, behavior, cognition, and body function

Front 464

personality disorders

Back 464

rigid, maladaptive personality patterns that cause personal distress or an inability to get along with others

Front 465

paranoid personality disorder

Back 465

a disorder characterized by habitually unreasonable and excessive suspiciousness or jealousy

Front 466

narcissistic personality disorder

Back 466

a disorder characterized by an exaggerated sense of self-importance and self-absorption

Front 467

antisocial personality disorder

Back 467

a disorder characterized by antisocial behavior such a lying, stealing, manipulation of others and sometimes violence; and a lack of guilt, shame, and empathy

Front 468

schizophrenia

Back 468

a psychotic disorder or group of disorders marked by positive symptoms (e.g. delusions, hallucinations, disorganized and incoherent speech, and inappropriate behavior) and negative symptoms (e.g.. Emotional flatness and loss of motivation.

Front 469

psychosis

Back 469

an extreme mental disturbance involving distorted perceptions and irrational behavior; it may have psychological or organic causes

Front 470

psychosurgery

Back 470

any surgical procedure that destroys selected areas of the brain believed to be involved in emotional disorders or violent, impulsive behavior

Front 471

electroconvulsive therapy

Back 471

a procedure used in cases of prolonged and severe major depression, in which a brief brain seizure is induced

Front 472

antipsychotic drugs

Back 472

drugs used primarily in the treatment of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders

Front 473

antidepressant drugs

Back 473

drugs used primarily in the treatment of mood disorders, especially depression and anxiety

Front 474

tranquilizers

Back 474

drugs commonly but often inappropriately prescribed for patients who complain of unhappiness, anxiety, or worry

Front 475

lithium carbonate

Back 475

a drugs frequently given to people suffering from bipolar disorder

Front 476

placebo effect

Back 476

the apparent success of a medication or treatment that is due to the patient's expectations or hopes rather than to the drug or treatment itself

Front 477

systematic desensitization

Back 477

in behavior therapy, a step by step process of desensitizing a client to a feared objects or experience; based on the classical conditioning procedure of counter conditioning

Front 478

aversive conditioning

Back 478

in behavior therapy, a method in which punishment is substituted for the reinforcement that perpetuates a bad habit

Front 479

exposure treatment

Back 479

in behavior therapy, a method in which punishing a person suffering from an anxiety disorder, such as a phobia or panic attacks, is taken directly into the feared situation until the anxiety subsides

Front 480

therapeutic alliance

Back 480

the bond of confidence and mutual understanding established between therapist and client, which allows them to work together to solve the clients problems

Front 481

dissociative identity disorder

Back 481

a controversial disorder marked by the appearance within one person of two or more distinct personalities, each with its own name and traits; commonly known as multiple personality disorder

Front 482

transference

Back 482

in psychodynamic therapies, a critical step in which the client transfers unconscious emotions or reactions, such as emotional feelings about his or her parents, onto the therapist

Front 483

DSM

Back 483

a diagnostic manual whose aim is to provide clear diagnostic categories for purposes of the study and treatment of mental disorders

Front 484

panic attacks

Back 484

short-lived but intense feelings of spontaneous anxiety

Front 485

anxiety

Back 485

a general state of apprehension or psychological tension

Front 486

learned helplessness

Back 486

a theory of depression which holds that people become depressed when their efforts to avoid pain or to control the environment consistently fail

Front 487

vulnerable-stress approach

Back 487

a theory of depression which holds that depression and other disorders result from an interaction between individual vulnerabilities and environmental stresses

Front 488

catatonic stupor

Back 488

a symptom of schizophrenia in which a person withdraws completely, sitting without moving for hours

Front 489

emotional flatness

Back 489

unresponsive facial expressions, poor eye contact, and diminished emotions

Front 490

trepanning

Back 490

an outdated method of treatment in which "psychic pressures" were released by drilling holes into the skull of a person exhibiting symptoms of mental illness

Front 491

prefrontal lobotomy

Back 491

a type of psychosurgery involving crushing nerve fibers running from the prefrontal lobe to other areas of the brain

Front 492

MAOI

Back 492

A class of antidepressant drugs which elevates the levels of serotonin and norepinephrine in the brain by blocking an enzyme that deactivates these neurotransmitters

Front 493

tricyclic antidepressants

Back 493

a class of antidepressants drugs which boost norepinephrine and serotonin levels by preventing the reabsorption of these substances by the cells that have released them

Front 494

SSRI

Back 494

a class of antidepressant drugs which boost serotonin levels by preventing the reabsorption of the substance by the cells that have released it

Front 495

cognitive therapy

Back 495

a therapeutic approach that involves helping clients identify the beliefs and expectations that might be unnecessarily prolonging their unhappiness, conflicts and other problems

Front 496

rational emotive therapy

Back 496

a therapeutic approach that involves using rational arguments to directly challenge a clients unrealistic beliefs or expectations

Front 497

family therapy

Back 497

a therapeutic approach that involves the whole family unit through identifying unhealthy communication and coping patterns and using that as a basis for individual treatment

Front 498

group therapy

Back 498

a therapeutic approach in which people with the same or different problems are put together to find solutions

Front 499

psychoanalysis

Back 499

a therapeutic technique involving intense analysis of a patient's past and unconscious motives, intended to lend the client insight into the reasons for his or her symptoms and unhappiness

Front 500

free association

Back 500

a therapeutic technique in which a client is encouraged to say whatever comes to their mind

Front 501

humanistic therapy

Back 501

a therapeutic technique in which a client starts form the assumption that people seek self-actualization and self-fulfillment

Front 502

existential therapy

Back 502

a therapeutic approach in clients are encouraged to explore the meaning of existence and confront the greater questions of death, freedom, free will, alienation from oneself and others, loneliness, and meaninglessness

Front 503

scientist-practitioner gap

Back 503

a major divide that exists within the proactive of therapy in which psychodynamic assumptions and methods and those of the other, research-based practices