Vitamins In Aquaculture

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Scientific name- Vitamin A

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Retinol

Retinal

Retinoic Acid

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Function of Vitamin A

Back 2

Structure and function of epithelial tissues (prevents keratinization)
Vision
Bone development
Reproduction

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Deficiency signs of Vitamin A

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Exophthalmia, vision problems
Depigmentation
Hemorrhaging
Skin/fin problems (keratinization, fin erosion)
Twisted operculum
Reduced immune function
Abnormal spawning or fry

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Toxicity signs of Vitamin A

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Scoliosis and lordosis
Fin erosin and epithelial keratinization
Birth defects (high levels are teratogenic)

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Precursor of Vitamin A

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Beta carotene (plants)

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Stability of Vitamin A

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Retinols are not very stable – break down with exposure to light, heat, oxygen, or moisture.
Methods to improve stability:
Esterify the alcohol (retinol) to a fatty acid:
Ex) Retinol + palmitic acid (16:0)
Mechanical: Add coating to stabilize, such as gelatin.
Antioxidants: Synthetic chemicals such as ethoxyquin, BHA, BHT, or natural forms, such as vitamin E. Antioxidants scavenge O2 so vit. A is protected from oxidation.

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Vitamin D active form

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1,25 (OH)2 cholecalciferol

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Functions of Vitamin D

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Metabolism of Ca and P (nutrient interactions)
Make Ca-binding protein – required for Ca absorption from diet or water
Needed for structural components of hard tissues – bones, teeth and scales
Essentially, the body uses hard tissues as reservoirs for Ca and P

Involved in putting more Ca and P into bones when needed
Removes Ca and P from the bones when needed elsewhere
Vit. D3 (also called calcitriol) is also a hormone: made into active form in kidney, and travels through the blood to tissues (target tissues)
As a hormone- numerous functions

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Deficiency signs of Vitamin D

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A lack of D3 (and so calcium), causes tetani (no calcium for muscle contraction)
A lack of D3 in juvenile vertebrates causes rickets – adults get osteomalacia
A lack of D3 also causes improper teeth, scale & bone formation
Reduced bone ash (due to low Ca and P) is a general deficiency sign
Low tissue levels of Vit. D (kidney & liver)
Stability: D3 is destroyed excess UV light and oxygen (so antioxidants are needed -especially in a high fat diet).

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Precursor of Vitamin D

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7-dehydrocholesterol

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Peculiarities of Vitamin D

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Theoretically, with sufficient exposure to UV light, vitamin D is not required in the diet
This introduces a new category of nutrient essentiality, called “conditionally essential”
Vit. D is usually added to the diets of fish raised commercially (safety margin)

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Stability of Vitamin D

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Stability: D3 is destroyed excess UV light and oxygen (so antioxidants are needed -especially in a high fat diet).
Coating (eg. w/gelatin) also protects vitamin D

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Vitamin E Active form

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Alpha-tocopherol

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Functions of Vitamin E

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Antioxidant-especially in lipid membranes.
Involved in specific phosphorylation reactions.
Involved in porphyrin and heme synthesis.
Synthesis of vitamin C
Sulfur amino acid metabolism (cysteine, methionine.)
Vit. E scavenges free radicals in lipid part of cell (membrane)
Vit. E works together with selenium (Se) to protect the whole cell from oxidation. Se is part of glutathione peroxidase – an antioxidant that works in the aqueous part of the cell (cytosol)

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Deficiency signs of Vitamin E

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Anemia (due to fragility of RBC’s –breakdown of membranes)
Exudative diathesis (extreme edema in certain places - due to capillary permeability caused by peroxidation of cell membrane)
Capillary permeability
Muscular dystrophy (nutritional)
Fatty liver
Kidney & Pancreas degeneration
Abnormal skin pigmentation

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Toxicity signs of Vitamin E

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No harmful effects documented in fish
However, feeding oxidized oils to fish increases their need for vitamin E
Ex) Sekoke syndrome in carp – caused by feeding them oxidized silk work pupae

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Stability of Vitamin E

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"Unstable to oxygen & heat
Use Antioxidants—Synthetic"
Ethoxyquin
Butalated hydroxyanisole (BHA)
Butalated hydroxytoulene (BHT)
"Produce an Ester – a stabilized form of Vit. E: alpha-tocopherol + acetic acid makes
Alpha-tocopherol acetate (see on vitamin labels – used in supplements)"

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Interactions of Vitamin E

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Vitamin C
Selenium
Highly Unsaturated Fatty Acids (if increase HUFAs in diet, need to increase vit. E to protect the double bonds from oxidation)

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Active form of Vitamin K

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K1- Phylloquinone- Plant form
K2 – Menaquinone- Animal form
K3 – Menadione- Synthetic – highest activity

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Functions of Vitamin K

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Blood clotting (the anti- hemorrhagic vitamin)
Involved in the synthesis of 4 proteins– clotting proteins—formed in the liver. esp. prothrombin (factor 2). All are involved in the cascade mechanism of clotting
Bone metabolism – emerging area of research in fish
Vitamin K is part of several enzymes that regulate bone growth and resorption

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Deficiency signs of Vitamin K

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Skin hemorrhages
Anemia
Prolonged clotting time
Bone deformities

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Stability of Vitamin K

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Menadione is most stable to heat or light.
Menadione is added with NaSO4 to make it water soluble.
Not known to be toxic
Intestinal bacteria can make Vitamin K which meets requirement in some fish

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Antagonistics of Vitamin K

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Dicoumarol is a Vitamin K antagonist (found in sweet clover). Rat poison and Warfarin also contain this vitamin K antagonist.
Dicoumarol mimics Vit.K – similar in structure – interferes with function. Result: Bleed to death

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Vitamin B1

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Thiamine

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Functions of B1

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In carbohydrate metabolism 2 places:
1) Oxidative decarboxylation
2) Transketolation (in pentose PO4 pathway)

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Active form of B1

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Thiamine pyrophosphate – TPP, constituent of co-carboxylase

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Thiamine deficiency

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1. Neurological disorders (production of acetyl
CoA is low, therefore acetylcholine is
lower).
2. Poor Appetite
3. Poor growth
4. Lethargy
5. Poor balance
6. Reproductive problems

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How does a Thiamine deficiency develop?

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1) Not enough in the diet
2) Consume product (like raw fish) that has
thiaminase – will break down the thiamine
that is consumed in the diet

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How does Thiamine ineract with nutreints?

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Thiamine is critical for carbohydrate metabolism. An increase in dietary carb may mean a need to increase thiamine also

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Stability of Thiamine

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Most labile B vitamin (easily broken down)
Unstable to heat & moisture
To increase stability, use form of thiamine mononitrate (thiamine with one N04 added)

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Vitamin B2

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Riboflavin

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Functions of Riboflavin

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Part of (coenzyme of):
1.FMN (flavin mononucleotide)
2.FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide)
Function: Hydrogen transfer or Redox rns
Oxidation of glucose, amino acids
Function in electron-transport

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Coenzyme forms of Riboflavin

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FMN
FAD

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Riboflavin deficiency signs

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1.Reduced appetite
2. Opaque lens
3. Light sensitivity
4. Anemia
5. Hemorrhages
6. Short-body dwarfism
7. Dark pigmentation

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Riboflavin stability

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Riboflavin is fairly stable in vitamin premixes

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Vitamin B3

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Niacin

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Functions of Niacin

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Hydrogen transfer.
Active co-enzyme forms: NAD& NADP. NAD and NADH (reduced form) are widely functional in metabolism. They function in energy metabolism in general (carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids)

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Active Coenzyme Form of Niacin

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NADP

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Functions of NADP

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Oxidation of fatty acids

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Deficiency signs of Niacin

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Skin, fin lesions
Exophthalmia
Tetani

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Niacin stability

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Niacin is very stable. It is resistant to air, heat, and light.

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Vitamin B6

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Pyridoxine

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Functions of Vitamin B6 Pyridoxine

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1.Decarboxylation (removing a carbon) in amino acid metabolism)
2.Racemization (changing isomeric structure)
3.Transamination (moving an amine from 1 compound to another)

•Overall main function = amino acid metabolism
•Heme production
•Fat and carbohydrate metabolism

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Pyridoxine Deficiency Signs

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1.nervous disorders
2.hyperirritability
3.loss of muscle coordination ( low serotonin)
4.anemia
5.tetani (low serotonin)
6.blue-green color (in cod)
7.Depresses antibody synthesis

*Pyridoxine affects neurotransmitters (dopamine, serotonin, & GABA) – mechanism of nervous disorders

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Nutrient Interactions With Pyridoxine

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* Dietary requirement for pyridoxine increases with dietary protein
* If you increase dietary protein – need to re-evaluate the B6 requirement also

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Vitamin B12

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-- Cyanocobalamin is the coenzyme form
--Cobalt (a mineral) is a component of B12- - B12 is not necessary in the diet if cobalt is present
--Common name: “Animal protein factor” (B12 deficiency fairly common in animals fed no meat)

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Cyanocobalamin - B12 Functions:

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1.Formation of red blood cells (along with folic acid).
2.Methyl group synthesis-
-CH3 groups are transferred between compounds in metabolic conversions
3. B12 also has role in lipid metabolism

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Pyridoxine Deficiency Signs

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1.nervous disorders
2.hyperirritability
3.loss of muscle coordination ( low serotonin)
4.anemia
5.tetani (low serotonin)
6.blue-green color (in cod)
7.Depresses antibody synthesis

*Pyridoxine affects neurotransmitters (dopamine, serotonin, & GABA) – mechanism of nervous disorders

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Nutrient Interactions With Pyridoxine

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Dietary requirement for pyridoxine increases with dietary protein

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Vitamin B12

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CYANOCOBALAMIN

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Mineral that is a component of B12

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Cobalt is a component of B12

B12 is not necessary if cobalt is present

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Common name of B12

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“Animal protein factor”

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Functions of Vitamin B12

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1.Formation of red blood cells (along with folic acid).
2.Methyl group synthesis-
-CH3 groups are transferred between compounds in metabolic conversions
3. B12 also has role in lipid metabolism

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B12 interacts with

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Choline
Folic acid
Pantothenic acid

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B12 Deficiency Signs

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1.Anemia (salmonids show microcytic anemia - abnormally small RBC’s with inadequate hemoglobin).
2.Fragile RBC’s (aggravates anemia)

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Peculiarities of B12

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1. Some fish have gut microflora that can make B12
2. A protein called “Intrinsic Factor” is required for absorption of B12 from the gut (diet) – genetic defect in intrinsic factor requires intake of B12 by injection

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PANTHOTHENIC ACID functions

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1.A component of coenzyme A (CoA). - CoA helps to activate nutrients before synthesis or oxidation.
Example: Fatty acid synthesis or oxidation
2.Steroid synthesis (adrenocorticosteroids) – such as cortisol – secreted in stressed fish

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Deficiency Signs of Pantothenic Acid

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1. Clubbed gills (fusion of lamellae)- -severely limits 02 intake, see exudate from gills. Gills are affected early due to high metabolic rate.
2. Anemia
3. Fin erosion

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Pantothenic acid interacts with

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Choline
Folic acid
B12

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Stability of Pantothenic Acid

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•Pantothenic acid is fairly stable during processing.
•Included in premix as a calcium salt -(calcium pantothenate)

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FOLIC ACID is composed of 2 parts

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Pteroic acid + Glutamic acid

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2 active coenzyme forms of Folic acid

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1)Tetrahydrofolic acid (FH4)
2)Dihydrofolic acid (FH2)
Function: Transfer of 1-C units (methyl groups mostly).

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Functions of Folic acid

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--Formation of RBC’s
--Formation of Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA)

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FOLIC ACID Deficiency Signs

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--Anemia (macrocytic or megaloblastic)
--Dark color

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Interactions of Folic acid

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Folic acid interacts with choline and vitamin B12

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Brown Blood Disease

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Nitrite toxicity

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Folic acid interacts with

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Choline
Pantothenic acid
B12

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Gut microflora can make

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Folic acid, B12, K

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Biotin functions

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Carboxylation and decarboxylation reactions in:
a) Lipid & fatty acid metabolism
b) Purine synthesis

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Deficiency Signs of Biotin

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1)Poor appetite
2)Skin problems
3)Muscle atrophy
4)Spastic convulsions
5)Anemia
6)Blue “slime-patch” disease in brook trout

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Biotin Antagonist

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* “Egg-white injury”
•Avidin is a protein in egg white that irreversibly binds biotin – makes it unavailable to fish
•Cooking destroys avidin – makes biotin available again

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Biotin peculiarities

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Deficiency is rare
•Practical diet ingredients are rich in biotin
•Quantitative requirement is low
•Biotin is stable in vitamin premixes

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VITAMIN C

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(ASCORBIC ACID)

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Enzyme to synthesize Vit C from glucose

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GLO or L-gulonolactone oxidase

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Functions of Ascorbic acid

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•Collagen synthesis
•Iron metabolism
•Detoxification of xenobiotics
•Synthesis of adrenal steroids
•Vitamin C is a strong reducing agent
•Megadoses of Vit. C seem to improve the immune response

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Deficiency signs of Ascorbic acid

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1. Scoliosis (side to side curvature) and lordosis (vertical curvature).
2. Capillary fragility
3. Slow wound repair
4. Skin hemorrhages
5. Suppressed immune function
6. “Black death” (melanization of lesions in collagen tissues)
7. Impaired reproduction

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Stable form of Vit C

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Stay C

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Vitamin like compounds

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Choline and Inositol

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One common function of Vitamin-like compounds

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They are lipotropic (“lipid-moving”) – they are part of phospholipids that are part of lipid transport particles

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What is Choline part of?

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Phosphatidylcholine (PC)

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What is Inositol part of ?

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Phosphatidylinositol (PI)

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Choline is a structural component of

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Acetylcholine

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Deficiency signs of Choline

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fatty liver, hemorrhaging, low growth

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Nutritional interactions of choline

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--Folic acid , B12
--Methionine

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Peculiarities of Choline

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hygroscopic

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INOSITOL deficiency

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Carp show these deficiency signs:
--skin lesions
--poor growth
--distended stomachs