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113 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What changes in bone structure occurred to help tetrapods support body weight on land from gravity? |
zygapophyses |
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What bones were lost in tetrapods which made it possible for the neck to not only be flexible but move separately from the body? |
opercular bones |
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What are the two sections in "trunk vertebrae" ? Describe them. |
1. Lumbar- No ribs. 2. Thoracic- Ribs. |
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What region of the vertebrae includes the pelvic girtle and what is its function? |
Sacral vertebrae- This section fuses with the pelvic girtle, transfering weight onto the hind legs (appendicular skeleton). |
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What is the Axial Skeleton? |
Consists of the head and the trunk of the vertebrae (spine). |
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What is the Appendicular Skeleton? |
Consists of the bones in the limbs and the limb girdles. |
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What two roles do axial muscles asume in tetrapods? |
1.Postural support rather than locomotive. 2.Ventilation of the lungs. |
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What are epaxial muscles? |
Muscles that lie doesal of the trunk vertebrae. |
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Compare epaxial muscles in fish/ modern amphibians and amniotes. |
In fish/ modern amphibians, the epaxial muscles are a single mass that are undifferentiated. In amniotes, there are three distinct muscle groups of the epaxial muscles. |
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What are the hypaxial muscles? |
These are located ventral to the trunk. |
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Compare Hypaxial muscles in boney fish and tetrapods. |
Boney fish have two layers of hypaxial muscles, where tetrapods have three layers. |
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What is the third layer of the hypaxial muscles present in tetrapods? What is this layer's function? |
Transverse abdominus- Essential to breathing on land for tetrapods. In modern amphibians this layer is responsible for exhalation of air from the lungs. |
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The rectus abdominis is part of what muscle group? What is its function? |
The rectus abdominus is part of the Hypaxial muscle group and its main function is postural. |
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Name the two girdles of the Appendicular Skeleton and describe them. |
1. The pelvic girdle is fused with the sacral vertebrae and the femur. 2. The pectoral girdle is |
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The tetrapod limb is derived from... |
the fin of fish. |
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What are the four modes of locomotion on land? |
1. Walking-trot 2. walk 3. Bound 4. Richochet |
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Describe the mode of locomotion; the walking-trot. What animal is an example? |
In this mode of locomotion the right front/left back are a unit. The left front/right back are a unit. Seen in salamanders. |
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Describe the mode of locomotion; walk. Give an example. |
Each leg moves independently in succession. Usually with three feet on the ground at a time. Called the amble when there are less than three feet on the ground at the same time (sped up version). Example is dog. |
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Describe the mode of locomotion; Bound. Give an example. |
Jumping off hind legs and landing on forelegs. Flexability of the back contributes to how long the stride is. Example is frog. |
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Describe the mode of locomotion; Ricochet. |
Bipedal hopping (only using back legs). Example is kangaroo. |
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Describe __ modifications that made it easier for tetrapods to eat on land. |
1. The snout lengthened so that teeth were in front of the eyes. 2. Tongue- large and muscular. Use to manipulate food and to transport it into the pharynx. 3. Salivary glands- Only seen in terrestrial vertebrates. Some have elaborated secretions that have venom to kill prey. |
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What is buccal pumping? |
This is a modification for breathing in which the oral cavity expands and positive pressure is used to breath in and out. Seen in non-amniotes (frog). |
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What is the Allantois? |
This is the region of the amniotic egg that is responsible for gas exchange. It sits right up against the shell which is porous to allow exchange of oxygen, waste, and gasses. |
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What is the function of the egg? |
It prevents the fetus from drying out. |
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Non amniotes use buccal pumping to breathe... how to amniotes breathe? |
They use negative pressure aspiration pump through expansion of the rib cage which sucks air into the lungs. When the ribs relax, air is expelled. |
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Where is the heart in relation to the lungs in terrestrial vertebrates? |
It is behind the pectoral girdle. |
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The two circuts are? Which one supplies oxygenated blood? |
The two circuts are the pulmonary and systemic. Systemic circut supplies oxygen to the body and pulmonary circut supplies the lungs with deoxygenated blood. |
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Describe how amphibians breathe through skin. |
Amphibians have a patch of skin called the pulmonary arch which is where major gas exchange takes place. They have a single ventricle through both the left and right atrium where oxygenated blood from skin mixes in with deoxygenated blood from the body. |
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What is different about lungless salamanders... |
They need to be in moist areas because hey respire through their skin. |
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Compare vision in tetrapods and fish. |
1. Tetrapods have flatter lenses than fish. 2. Fish focus light by moving the position of the lens, while tetrapods focus by changing the shape of the lens. 3. Tetrapods eyes must be protected and kept moist. |
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What is the fish's mechanism of hearing. How was this replaced in tetrapods? |
Fish use lateral lines to sense displacement of water around them (waves). On land this can not happen, so the ear replaced lateral lines. Transmitted through a bone or chain of bones into the inner ear. |
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How is smell increased in mammals? |
Mammals have turbonates in the olfactory epithelium which are scrolls of thin bone. A longer snout allows for more turbonates. |
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What is the Vomeronasal Organ? Also called Jackobson's organ. |
Specialized olfactory organ responsible for sensing chemical signals. |
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Characteristics of amphibians are... |
1. Pedicellate teeth 2. Moist, permeable skin. |
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Caecilians |
Legless burrowing or aquatic amphibians. Eyes are greatly reduced. Have dermal folds called annuli which encircle entire body. Usually have protusible tentacles, between the eye and nostril |
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Caecilians reproduction |
-Give live birth usually. -Embryos of terrestrial caecilians have filamentous gills, and the embryos ofaquatic species have sac-like gills -Yolk runs out early in development and fetuses scrape walls of oviducts with specialized teeth until uterine milk comes from beyond the epithelium. |
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What are the four species of salamanders discussed in lecture and describe them. |
1. Mudpuppy- aquatic and external gills. 2. Hellbender- special folds for gas exchange. Largest salamander in N.A. 3. Texas blind salamander- cave dwelling. White with no eyes. 4. Tiger salamander- Terrestrial species with sturdy legs. |
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Salamander Reproduction |
-Salamanders use spermatophores to reproduce. Male deposits spermatophore which contains capsule of sperm supported by gelatinous base. Female picks up cap with cloaca and cap dissolves in reproductive tract releasing sperm. -salamanders that breed in water lay eggs in water. eggs hatch into gilled aquatic larvae and transform into terrestrial adults. |
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Courtship of salamanders |
-Pheromones mostly through physical contact between male and female. Males use their hedonic glands to secrete pheromones into the nostrils or body of the female. -Some male newts vibrate tail to create stream of water with pheromones toward female. |
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What salamander gives birth to live young? |
European alpine salamander. Births 1 or 2 fully developed young after gestation period of 2 to 4 years!!! There are initially 20 to 30 eggs but embryos consume unfertilized eggs. |
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What is paedomorphosis? |
Condition in which larva becomes sexually mature without attaining adult body form. (sexually mature in larva form). |
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Anurans include which species? |
These are tailless amphibians; wither a frog or a toad. |
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Eastern spade foot toad |
Spend most of life under the ground. They have a dark spade which is used for digging on each hind foot. |
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Green tree frog |
feet are sticky so that they can walk up even smooth surfaces. |
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Anuran's tongue |
Tongue is attached to front of lower jaw. the tip of tongue is at the rear of the mouth when it is retracted. This part of the tongue has glands that excrete sticky mucus that adheres to prey. |
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Describe frog calls based on size. |
The larger the body size, the deeper the sound. Some have vocal sac connected to oral cavity. |
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When do female frogs react to calls? |
They react during a brief period when eggs are ready to be laid. Hormones associated with ovulation sensitize specific cells in auditory pathway that respond to species specific characteristics of the male's call. |
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What are two reasons why frog calls are costly |
1. require fair amount of energy to produce 2. increase risk of predation. |
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What is the frog that was used as an example of the whine and chuck call? |
Tundra frog. When there are more males, there are more chucks. Shown that female goes towards a call with more chucks. When there are not as many males around, they will use less chucks because it makes them more open to predation by frog-eating bats. It is also shown that bats go towards speaker with more chucks. |
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Frog reproduction |
External fertilization. Perform amplexus. Hide eggs under leaf overhanging water, use foam nests that deters predators, lay in rain water on plants. |
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Amplexus |
Mating position of frogs in which the male clasps female around the back with his forelegs. |
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Direct development in frogs |
eggs develop right into adult frog form. |
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Frog parental care |
-Some species sit beside or on eggs and attack potential predators. -Some dart-poison frogs lay eggs on the ground, one of the parents stays with them, and tadpoles adhere to adult which takes to water. -Darwin's frogs keep in vocal sac -carry eggs in stomach |
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Mouth Brooding |
Keeping frogs in vocal sac |
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Gastric brooding |
Keeping eggs/young in stomach. Need to turn off digestion. |
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Surinam Toad |
Keeps egg in specialized skin on the back. Eggs are pushed into thickened and softened skin. Capsules form around them and they go through metamorphosis until they hatch as tiny frogs. |
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Describe amphibian metamorphosis. |
Tadpole's tail is absorbed and recycled into adult structures. Mouth broadens into huge mouth of a frog. Long tadpole gut changes to short gut. Involves three stages |
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What is one advantage of tadpoles |
Since tadpoles are filter feeding herbivores and adults are carnivores, both adult and young can exist in the same environment competing for resources. |
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What are the three stages of metamorphosis |
1. Pre-metamorphosis: Tadpoles increase in size with little change in form. 2. Pro-metamorphosis: The hind legs appear and the growth of the body continues at a slower rate. 3. Metamorphic climax- The forelegs emerge and the tail regresses. Very rapid phase. |
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What hormone controls metamorphosis? |
Thyroxine which is controlled by the pituitary gland's hormone TSH. |
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What are mucus glands used for? |
Mucus glands keep skin moist and permeable. This allows gas exchange. |
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how does the puerto Rico Coqul control water loss? |
They change positions. They extend legs and raise themselves up off the surface of the leaf when calling. It is in this position that they loose water by evaporation across entire body surface. On dry nights males call less. Most of the time they sit in water-conserving postures in which body is flattened against the leaf surface. Limbs are pressed against body. This position they loose significantly less water. |
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What is the pelvic patch? |
This is a highly vascularized patch of skin in the pelvic region that is responsible for water absorption. |
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What is special about the african clawed frog? |
They have antibacterial in mucus that makes them immune to chytrid fungus. |
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How do salamanders use mucus as a defense? |
They have adhesive mucous that is concentrated on the dorsal side of the tail. When the salamander is attacked, it bends its tail forward and buffets the attacker. Causes predator to be glued and unable to move. This is seen in the California slender salamander when sized with garter snake. |
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What is special about the family dedrobatids? |
They can use alkaloids from their food (ants, beetles, millipedes) that live near leaf litter with frogs. Includes poison-dart frogs. |
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What did south american indians do with poison-dart frogs? |
They would touch the frog to their arrow which would poison enemy. |
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What is a aposematic color? |
A color that serves to warn or repel predators. Usually associated with the animal being poisonous. An example are red efts which contain tetrodotoxin with is potent neurotoxin. |
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What animal uses Mimicry? |
The red-backed salamander has a red phase and a lead-blacked phase. The mimic species resembles a noxious model and that resemblances causes third species (the dupe) to mistake mimic for model. |
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What are the Extant Sauropods? |
Turtles, scaly reptiles (tuatara, lizards, and snakes), crocodilians, and birds. |
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What are extant synapsids? |
mammals |
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Turtles are grouped into two lineages... |
1. Cryptodires (hidden neck) 2. Pleurodires (side neck) |
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Describe temperature sensitive sex determination in turtles. |
High temperature =high aromatase =female. Low temperature =low aromatase =male. This occurs during TSP (thermo sensitive period) |
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Sea turtles travel along the gulf stream, drifting along using ______ to know when to turn right. If they do not turn right they will catch the north-atlantic circulation and be taken to very cold waters. |
Magnetic Field. |
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What do crocodilians have on upper and lower jaw that allow them to detect changes in water pressure... used for hunting |
small bulges. |
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Crocodilians are ectotherms or endotherms? |
ectotherms. bask in sunlight. Can increase rate by shunting blood to peripheral areas so that surface to volume ratio is larger. |
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Croc Vocalizations |
for mating- very low frequency. Well below our hearing range. for young- young use calls to make contact with mother. |
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What is a lepidosaur (subclass) |
scaled lizard. Predom. terrestrial tetrapods with secondary aquatic species. Scales make them relatively impermeable to water. Have four legs, however reduction or loss of limbo is widespread among lizards and all snakes are limbless. |
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Sphenodonts (Order) |
Only extant species are the tuatara (there are two types). |
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Tuatara are found only on islands that are... |
mammalian and predator-free. |
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Tuatara feed on what kind of nights... |
Cool and foggy. |
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Tuatara are tied to what other species in which they exploit resources from? |
The Seabird. Although tuatara sometimes feed on them, mostly they exist in the same habitat and rely on seabird's massive amounts of guano produced that attract arthropods (insects) which they eat. |
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Example of aquatic lizard... |
Galapagos Marine Iguana |
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What are paranoids? |
This is a family of lizards that includes the monitor lizards. They are active predators that feed on variety of vertebrate and invertebrate animals. |
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What is the most well known species in varanidae family? |
Komodo monitor dragon. |
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What is the hunting method of the komodo monitor dragon? |
They bite prey, stalk them for days until the animal dies from infection. |
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What is the significance of Wallace's line and what is this an example of? |
Wallace's line is an example of reciprocal geographical distributions in which there are sudden switches in species that make up functional groups across geographic boundaries. Wallace's line in particular, shows that to the left of the line (west- towards asia) there were small carnivores that were mammals. East of the line (towards Australia) most of the small carnivores are monitor lizards. |
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What are the six body forms of snakes? |
1. Slow-moving constrictors- move slowly, rely on chemoreception to detect prey. They have forked tongue to sample airspace. 2. Fast-moving non-constrictors- Forage by crawling rapidly. raise head to look around. 3. Tree snakes- extremely elongated with large eyes. Length distributes weight to allow them to crawl over small twigs without breaking them or falling. 4. Burrowing snakes- short and small. small eyes. Head shape assists with burrowing. 5. Vipers- Heavy body with broad heads. Kill via poison and are sit and wait predators. 6. Sea snake- Tail is laterally flattened into an oar. Ventral scales are reduced or absent. Nostrils are on top of head so that they can go to surface to breathe. lungs are very large. Function in buoyancy. Oxygen uptake happens through skin while diving. Most are viviparous- giving birth in water. |
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What are the four types of snake locomotion? |
1. Lateral undulation- body thrown into series of curves which each serves to propel part of body forward. Can be rapid. 2. Rectilinear- Alternative sections of the ventral body are lifted off the ground and pulled forward by muscles that originate on the ribs and insert on ventral scales. Move in slow straight line. 3. Concertina- This is used to get through narrow passages that do not provide enough space for broad curves of lateral undulation. Snake presses several loops against the walls of the burrow and extends front part of body. 4. Side-winding- Used by snakes that are on sand. raises body in loops, resting weight on two or three points that are the only points touching the ground. |
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You often hear that snakes can "unhinge their jaws" to eat large prey... what is actually happening? |
The snake's skull contains eight joints that attach to the jaw... although these joints permit rotation. This number of links gives the snake the ability to move jaw in interesting ways. Snake mandibles are only joined by muscles and skin so that they can spread side to side and also back and fourth to manipulate the prey and so that they can eat prey larger than themselves. |
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What features of a snake keep it from being harmed from struggling prey? |
The frontal and parietal bones of a snake skull extend downward, so that they entirely enclose the brain and shield it from kicks of prey. |
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Describe how snake constricts |
Captures prey with jaws, wraps one or more coil of its body around prey squeezing it. With each exhalation of the prey, the snake takes advantage by tightening loops. The prey with either suffocate or the heart will stop from internal pressure. |
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What are the three types of venomous snakes? |
1. Opisthoglyphous- Have one or more enlarged teeth near rear of maxilla with smaller teeth in front. 2. Proteroglyphous- Hollow fangs located at the front of the maxilla. Several smaller solid teeth behind fangs. Permanently erect. 3. Solenoglyphous- Hollow fangs are the only teeth on the maxilla. They rotate so that the fangs are folded against the roof of the mouth when the jaws are closed. This folding mechanism allows snakes to have very long fangs that eject venom deep into prey. Venom not only kills prey but speeds up digestion of the prey after swallowed. |
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Cuban curly-tailed lizard are special because... |
They are in the same place 99% of the time... Only move to capture insects or to chase away other lizards. Never more than two seconds of activity. |
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Common Ameiva are special because... |
they are active for 4 to 5 hours in the middle of the day. moving more than 70% of the time to forage for prey. |
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Name all of the characteristics of a sit-and-wait predator |
1. forage movement- few per hour, slow, non exploratory. 2. Sensory modes- vision 3. types of prey- Mobile, large 4. Risk of predation- Low 5. types of predators- Widely foraging 6. Energetics- daily expenditure and intake low. 7. Social behavior- Small home range and territorial. 8. reproduction- High mass of clutch eggs/embryos relative to adult. 9. Body form- Stout bodies, short tails, and cryptic coloration. |
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Name all of the characteristics of widely foraging predator. |
1. Foraging movements- Many hours/fast, exploratory. 2. Sensory modes- Vision and olfaction. 3 types of prey- Sedentary, small 4. Risk of predation- higher. 5. types of predators- sit and wait. 6. Energetics- daily expenditure, intake higher. 7. Social behavior- large home range and non-territorial. 8. Reproduction- Low mass of clutch relative to adult. 9. Body form- slim, elongate with long tails. Often have stripes to create optical illusions as they move. |
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What is autotomy? |
The ability to break off tail when it is seized by predator. |
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What are gular fans? |
These are areas of skin beneath the chin that can be distended by hyoid apparatus during visual displays. Every species has its own gulag fan pattern. Functions in species identification and to locate potential mates. |
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What is special about the side blotched lizard? |
Males have one of three colors in the gulag region (blue, orange, or yellow). Throat color of a male is determined by level of testosterone in its blood and is fixed early in development. blue- territorial. Mates only with females in area. orange- more aggressive than blue mails, don't maintain territories, but displace blue mails from territories and mate the females. yellow- try and sneak into territories of blue males and steal a waiting before they are chased away by territorial males. |
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Viviparity has evolved far more in what climates? |
Cold. |
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What is an activity temperature range? |
The temperature range in which a snake or lizard is active... whether this is feeding, courtship, what ever. |
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Describe thermal environments |
Lizards stay in certain niches. An example are 5 common species of anoles lizards can be differentiated based on what niche they are in. The first division is the division from sun to shade. different species are in deep shade, partial shade, or full sun. the second division are habitats in sun-shade continuum. This is based on substrates they use as perch sites. (4m off the ground or 2 m off the ground). |
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In endotherms... heat is produced from... |
basal metabolic rate, eating, and activity of skeletal muscles (shivering) |
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What is normothermia? |
Normothermia is a temperature range in which the body temperature can be kept stable. Above this range the animal's ability to dissipate heat is inadequate. Body temperature increases (heat death). Below this range, the animal's ability to generate heat to balance heat loss is exceeded. Body temp falls (cold death). |
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What is thermo-neutral zone? |
This is the range of temperatures where the metabolic rate of endotherm is at standard level. Above this, there is the lower critical temperature and an upper critical temperature. Beyond upper critical temperature, animal must use evaporative cooling. Below lower critical temperature animal needs to increase metabolic rate to maintain stable body temperature. |
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Zone of evaporative cooling what is it and how do different species show they are in this zone? |
Temperature range from upper critical temperature to upper lethal temperature. Animals pant, sweat, use rapid fluttering movement of gulag region to evaporate water (birds). |
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Zone of chemical thermogenesis |
lies below lower critical temperature. In this zone, metabolic rate increases as ambient temperature falls. |
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What are endotherms two options when it comes to cold? |
1. increase metabolic heat production (requires more food) 2. increase insulation. (only method for polar environments because food is not available. |
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What do aquatic species use for insulation since they can not use fur? |
blubber (fat). |
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What is Torpor? |
A state used to avoid extreme situations of heat regulation where they lower their body temperature and metabolic rate. Body temp may drop very low (just above freezing temp of tissues). Metabolism reduced to as little as 1/20th of normal state. |
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How does animal arise from torpor? |
Through heat production from brown fat, through the ambient temperature outside, or increase in metabolism begins arousal. This requires metabolic rate to surpass resting rate. |
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What size animal benefits more from torpor? |
small placental mammals. This is because the cats of maintaining high body temperature is higher for a small animal than for a large one. Larger animals have more body tissue which would cost much more to arouse. |
