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Functional Definition of a Verb
A word may be a verb if it can accept an inflective morpheme [s, ed, en]
A word may be a verb if it contains a typical verb forming derivational affix.
A word may be a verb if it can be preceded by a word that typically precedes a verb.
A verb provides 5 (+1) pieces of information [beyond the obvious]. Memorize these, they’re important!
1. Voice – Active/Passive
2. Aspect – Simple [0], Progressive, Perfect, Perfect Progressive
3. Tense – Past, present, future
4. Person – 1st, 2nd, 3rd
5. Number – Singular/Plural
6. (Mood – Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive: most of the time we speak in Indicative, our superlative and subjunctive moods exist, but we don’t generally use formal markers, which is why this is in parentheses.)
English is classified as a 2 tense system of________
Past and Present
We don’t classify it as a 3 tense system because in order to get a future-tense we have to add in extra words; by modifying the infinitive stem we can only achieve past and present tense.
Verb + Modification [internally or affix] =
Tense
4 Principle parts of a verb
1. Infinitive Stem – The simplest form of the word which we can then modify. Drink
2. Past – Defines the difference between regular/irregular verbs. Drank
3. Past Participle – Ven, irregular verb forms have marked past participle morphemes. Drunk
4. Present Participle – Stem + Ing. That’s all it is. Many grammarians don’t classify this as a major verb part. Drinking
the past form of a verb defines __________
the difference between regular (weak) and irregular (strong) verbs.
Regular verbs – form the past-tense by using a ________.
detal suffix.
the detal suffix comes in 3 forms – 2 of which assimilate, 1 which is dissimilate.
Regular +d voiced assimilation, +t unvoiced assimilation and + ed dissimilation
If the word ends in a D or T sound [like Put  Putted] there needs to be a distinction between the end of the word and the __________
detal suffix.
Past and participle forms of regular verbs are _______.
identical.
Irregular verbs – form the past tense by an ____________.
ablaut change.
The Ablaut is a ____________________________.
vowel gradation within the verb – it is a change in pitch/locus of the tongue. Air is directed over different parts of the tongue, causing
Sing – infinitive stem. Sang – past. Sung – past participle. Drink, Drank, Drunk – same principle.
If there is a change in the vowel between the infinitive stem and the past-tense it IS irregular. Even if there is a detal suffix, if there is a vowel change in the verb, it IS irregular.
Past Participle Functions: Can be used in
Perfect aspect,
Perfect Progressive aspect,
Passive voice,
or adjectivally.
3 ways to Differentiate between past and past-participle forms:
When the verb is simply past, we can’t use any other verb form. [simple, past]
When the construction is N - Verb, it’s a past form. The noun is acting out the verb.
When the construction is N - Verb, it’s past-participle. The noun is being acted on.

“The dog walked by me” – the dog is walking, therefore it’s simply a past-form verb
“The dog, walked by me, got off it’s leash and ran across 11th Ave.” In this case, since “me” is walking the dog, it’s a past-participle form.
Modals:
Auxiliary verbs which place a condition on a main verb.
Whether it is a true modal or a periphrastic modal, they fulfill the same 5 conditions which are:
Futurity
Obligation
Ability
Permission
Necessity.
There are how many true modals? (They cannot be conjugated. With modals there is no specific tense associated, just a syntactic tense.
10
Syntactic Present Modals:
May
Can
Will
Shall
Must
Ought [to]
Syntactic Past Modals:
Might
Could
Would
Should
Modals fulfill 3 functions -
Question, Emphasis, and Negation
Periphrastic Modals:
Fulfill the same functions as true modals and place the same conditions on the verb, but use more words to do it.
The formula for creating periphrastic modals is:
(Be/Have) X to
Where X is the adjective or noun which provides information.
We have homework to finish. [We have to finish our homework?]
I am able to breathe. Most days, anyway. Not today, but most days.
Voice – Active and passive voice are
a question of who does what to whom.
In active voice, the Verb is
Doing. “I am hugging Lily.” The verb “hug” is performing the action. I, the subject, am performing the action of hugging my dog, Lily. Lily is very huggable.
“Lily is being hugged by me.” the sentences are equivalent in that the dog is hugged, hugging is happening to the dog and I am the person doing it, but the verb form has changed. The dog is also getting tired of my demonstrating on her.
Sentence patterns 1-6 cannot be
passifised. Only a sentence with a TRANSITIVE VERB can be passifised, everything else is automatically active.
Passive voice is marked by B+ ________
Past Participle. Difficult to tell just here because “hugged” is a regular verb, but it’s the past participle form.
4 parts of Aspect:
Simple
Progressive
Perfect
Perfect Progressive
Aspect Define:
Simple
Progressive
Perfect
Perfect Progressive
Simple – This is unembellished action. The baseline against which we can compare the other three aspects. Bite.
Progressive – Denotes on-going action.
Perfect – The action has been completed by the time of report
Perfect-Progressive – The action, which was ongoing, has been completed by time of report.
Formulas/Active Markers– What would the word bite be in active/simple, progressive, perfect, perfect progressive
Simple – No formula. 0 “I bite”
Progressive – Be+Ving [present participle]. “I am biting”
Perfect – Have/Has/Had + Ven [past participle] “I have bitten.”
Perfect-Progressive –Has/Had/Have+[Ven+Be={been}]+Ving “I have been biting”
Formulas/Passive Markers – What would the word bite be in passive/simple, progressive, perfect, perfect progressive
Simple – Be+ven. “I am bitten”
Progressive – Be+(be+Ving{being})+Ven. “I am being bitten”
Perfect – Have/Has/Had +(Be+Ven {been})+ ven “I have been bitten.”
Perfect-Progressive - Has/Had/Have+[Ven+Be={been}]+[be+ving]+Ven “I have been being bitten”
Verp+Particle forms are
an up and coming pattern in English that we’re beginning to see more and more of. They’re composed of a verb and a particle [go freaking figure] treated as one semantic unit. The particle tends to be a preposition.
Examples: Run in. Throw up. Look Up. Etc.
When we see a sentence like “Jack looked up the dress” we’re not sure whether Jack is doing a job or being a jerk,
There are 5 tests for determining whether a verb is a verb+particle form.
1. Close 1-word synonym – if there is a single word we can use to replace the potential Verb+Part, it is one. This is the best test, the other four are more… support. Eg. “Jack looked up the dress.” Could easily be “Jack googled the dress.” Yes. I did just use google as a verb.
2. Movement – “Jack looked the dress up.” We move the particle “Jack threw up his breakfast.”  “Jack threw his breakfast up.”
3. Pronoun Replacement – if we take the noun to be the object, and pronominalize it, “Jack looked up it” changes the intended meaning, so we have to do the same thing we did with movement: “Jack looked it up.”
4. Passification - The dress was looked up by Jack” “looked up” is still the same semantic unit, “Up the dress looked Jack” makes… very little sense. And sounds a bit twisted fairy-tale. Haha. Breakfast was thrown up by Jack. XD
5. Pseudo-clefting. – cutting something loose, in clefting you move it, in pseudo-clefting you do not. “Jack looked up what” becomes “What Jack looked up was the dress.” We cleave apart “looked up” from the object. John likes apples. What John likes is apples. What + be
Mood -
Expresses the speaker/narrator’s attitude towards both audience and object.
Indicative mood-
conversational mood, normal dialogue mood. This is the mood we use when we talk about conjugating verbs.
Imperative
the mood of command
 Imperatives are GENERALLY without a head. The only time an imperative has a head is when the subject is an indefinite pronoun. “Somebody get me a laudanum!” Otherwise, the subject is an implied “you.”
 Proof of the implied subject can be found by adding “Yourself” or “will you” to the end of the imperative, the reflexive pronoun “yourself” can only reflect on the subject “you.” “Get me a cup of coffee, will you?” - “Go get it yourself, Jerk.”
 The verb in the imperative mood has no tense, it has to be the infinitive stem. “Stand up.” Versus “Be standing!” or “Have been stood!”  I like that one.
 Only effective when: Speaker fulfills an appropriate social condition. [has the authority to make demands]
 Only effective using a performative verb [if the verb cannot be performed, the imperative is useless. “Grow taller!” doesn’t work except for in bad humor]
Subjunctive –
the mood of doubting, tentative, cautious, contrary to fact, wish fulfillment.
If the statement fulfills any of the above definition, IT IS SUBJUNCTIVE
 There are 3 formal markers of the subjunctive mood
 there are 3 conditions of the subjunctive mood
 Hypothetical syllogism is the basis of the subjunctive mood.
3 Conditions of Subjunctive:
1. Sufficient condition [If  Then]
2. Necessary condition [Only if  then]
3. Necessary and sufficient condition [If and only if  then]
The basic premise of the subjunctive mood is
“If X, then Y.”
“If Alison were queen, we would all lose our heads” the “then” is implied, but it is still subjunctive.
3 Formal Markers of the Subjunctive:
was-were, invariant be, dropping s
Was  Were
“If Alison were queen, we would all lose our heads.” “Alison” is a singular noun, so the Be verb functioning here SHOULD be singular, but because it’s in the subjunctive mood, it’s plural. This discrepancy between the singular subject and plural verb is the key to all three formal markers.
The distinction between was/were is largely due to dialect, but in formal speech/writing, “were” is correct.
“If Alison was queen, we would all lose our heads.” Is still the subjunctive mood because it fulfills the definition of being contrary to fact and [in Alison’s case] a wish. 

Invariant Be
“I recommend that Rachel be beheaded.” Rachel is a 3rd person Singular Noun in the present tense, in the indicative mood the verb would also be 3rd person singular, present “is” but this creates a logical snafu. “I recommend that Rachel is beheaded” makes no sense, because you cannot recommend a statement of fact.

Dropping S
“I recommend that Rachel retire from active combat.” Again, Rachel is 3rd person Singular noun in the present tense, so the verb should also be singular, but it is plural here because otherwise it makes no sense. Norm didn’t really go into details on why this is logically nonsensical, but “I recommend that Rachel retires from active combat” is … just not right. Or how about “Rachel should retire from active combat.” Also Singular/Plural Noun/Verb mismatching, but makes more sense to me. Should gives us the modal but it’s also subjunctive.
Syllogism – functions in 3 parts.
Major Premise – General condition
Minor Premise - Specific
Conclusion - Therefore, includes both major and minor terms.
In all introductory logic classes we see this syllogism

All men are mortal
Socrates is a man
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
This is a categorical syllogism, there are no conditions placed on the major premise.
There are 4 possible outcomes of a major premise such as “If X =Y”
1. Affirming the antecedent to affirm the consequent.
2. Denying the antecedent to deny the consequent.
3. Affirming the consequent to affirm the antecedent
4. Denying the consequent to affirm the antecedent.

Of these four possible outcomes, only 2 are actually VALID arguments.
If we use Norm’s example from class, the major premise is:
“If a girl has sexy legs, she’ll pass HPR101”

1. If a girl has sexy legs, she’ll pass HPR101. Jenny has sexy legs. Therefore, Jenny will pass HPR101.
This is valid. Jenny fulfills X, therefore she will fulfill Y.

2. If a girl has sexy legs, she’ll pass HPR101. Jenny has thunder thighs. Therefore Jenny will not pass HPR101.
This is invalid. Jenny does not have Y, but she might be really smart, so she still has the potential to pass.

3. If a girl has sexy legs, she’ll pass HPR101, Jenny Passed HPR101, therefore Jenny has sexy legs.
This is invalid. Again, Jenny may have passed on her academic merits, not on the sexiness of her legs.

4. If a girl has sexy legs, she’ll pass HPR101. Jenny Failed HPR101, therefore Jenny does not have sexy legs.
This is valid. Jenny failed to fulfill Y, therefore she cannot have fulfilled X.
Selectional Restriction-
Words use that we restrict simply because we do.

Eg. “Ray is pretty.” We generally don’t refer to men as “pretty” once they’re past the baby stage because of certain amounts of cultural conditioning etc. Men have to be handsome, or rugged, or whatever, rarely “pretty.”

Metaphors play on this concept a lot. When we say things like “My lawnmower eats rocks” we accept that as a metaphor, and we accept the image that comes with it because to “eat” a thing [the subject] must generally be living and animate; a lawnmower is neither, but we still contextually accept, for the moment, that “Lawnmower” may be +/- Animate. Also, the object “rocks” has to be, in this context, Edible. Rocks are not edible. That may be the one part of my education that I didn’t have to learn the hard way, but rocks are not edible. Except… in this particular context, rocks are edible by an animate lawnmower. So the metaphor works.
A phrase functions because of subject/verb and object/verb arrangement, and the context in which those arrangements are read. Taken completely literally, and using absolutely strict selectional restriction, “My lawnmower eats rocks” wouldn’t function at all.
Do Verbs – Do verbs function in 2 ways –
as do-support and as proverbs.
Pro-verbs:
if the pronoun replaces a noun but functions as a full reference, the do-verb acts as a proverb, replacing a verb and functioning as a full reference.
For this reason, “the first reference must be a full reference, the second and all subsequent references can be proverbalized until there is an intervening reference.” Sound familiar?
Do-support:
are essentially modals. Any time there is no auxiliary verb [including be] we add in do-support which serves the same 3 functions of modals. Question. Emphasis. Negation.
Emphasis (do support)
I do run
I will run
I can run
Negation (Do support)
I don’t run
I won’t run
I can’t run
Question (Do support)
Do I run?
Will I run?
Can I run?
Word Order – The first and last of everything are
points of emphasis. The last item in a sentence, paragraph, book, whatever is rhetorically more important than the first, but we PAY ATTENTION to the ends. Word order gives us cohesive language, putting two items [or like-things] close together better connects them rhetorically, which is why passification is such a productive process.

“I like him” versus “Him, I like.” Getting “Him” and “I” as close as possible in the same sentence cements that relationship.
8 Parts of Speech
Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, Pronouns, Prepositions, Conjunctions & Interjections
8 Parts of Speech fit into 5 functions of a natural language. The 5 functions are:
naming (nouns, pronouns), action (verbs), modification (adjectives, adverbs), joining (prepositions, conjunctions), exclaiming (interjections)
Semantic
Delivers meaning of a sentence. The Semantic groups are open classes, meaning that new members can be and are added all the time. Semantic information answers questions about the content of the sentence.
Nouns – Who, Whom, What.
Verbs – Action [do–verbs, modals, action verbs, intransitive verbs, be verbs etc.]
Adjectives – Modification
Adverbs – Modification
Functional:
Delivers grammatical information. These are closed classes, we haven’t added a new pronoun in 1500 years. Functional information is structural and informs us of who did what to whom.
___________ belong in the functional category, because even if the reference changes, the function does not. eg. “she” can refer to any woman, multiple women, and hypothetical women, but the word always serves the same function in that it is a reference to A woman.
Pronouns
Sentence Pattern 1
1 – "She is here." NP be AdvT/P – Adverb of Time and place.
Sentence Pattern 2
2 – She is adorable. NP be Adj – complete categorization
Sentence Pattern 3
3 – She is champion. NP be NP – complete categorization
Sentence Pattern 4
4 –– She looks fourmidable. [sic] NP vlink Adj – linking verb
Sentence Pattern 5
5 –She becomes the 5th queen. NP vlink Adj – linking verb
“Most young men become old men.”
Sentence Pattern 6
6. NP Vint – intransitive verb, doesn’t act upon an object. “Jess tried to sleep.” She snores. (six times) 6
Sentence Pattern 7
7. NP VT NP2 – Most common sentence pattern. “I hit the guy who cheated.” "I like you."
Sentence Pattern 8
8. NP VT NP2 NP3 – Only pattern that takes an indirect object. “John gave Bambi 8 novel experiences. Wink wink, nudge nudge.” "Mom gave Charlie eight treats."
Sentence Pattern 9
9. NP VT NP2 Adj – Adjective works on NP2. “We painted the car blue.” "She wore her–nine–inch–nails long."
Sentence Pattern 10
10. NP VT NP2 NP2 – Naming or whatever. “They call me Mr. Pig.” This Lion King reference brought to you by my inability to remember what they were parodying. or "We named him King of the Munchkins."
These sentence patterns are the ________ [indivisible unit, smallest possible point] of traditional grammar.
nexus
________Don’t actually mean anything, but are there to prove some sort of action or existence.
Be Verbs
infinite stem. (of Be Verbs)
Be, Being, Been
Past Tense Be Verbs
was, were
Present tense Be Verbs
Am, are, is
Verbs of the senses and, I suppose, change.
See, Smell, Hear, Taste, Touch, became/become, remain etc.
Linking Verbs
__________ verbs Do not act upon an object. “I cried, despairing of ever getting around to studying for psych.” I can cry on something, but I can’t cry something, it just doesn’t work.
“I kicked,” however, requires a noun/object. “I kicked uselessly at nothing.” Is still “I kicked nothing.”
Intransitive
________verbs: are the opposite of intransitive verbs. They require an object upon which to act. “I kicked the ground when I was aiming for the football.” No, true story. Kicking the ground broke my ankle.
Transitive Verbs
4 traditional grammatical sentence types.
Simple
Compound
Complex
Compound/Complex
Simple
A single independent clause/sentence pattern.
“George likes pretty girls.”
Compound
2 or more independent clauses/sentence patterns.
“Sally is pretty, so George likes her.”
Complex
1 independent clause & 1 or more dependent clauses.
“George likes Sally and Bernadette, who is less attractive.”
Compound/Complex
2 or more independent clauses & At LEAST 1 dependent clause.
“Sally is pretty, so George likes her and is going to propose marriage.”
__________act as the subject or complement of something
nouns
A word may be a noun if ___________ (3 definitions)
Possibility– 1. can accept a noun inflection [inflection morpheme]
Actuality– 2. contains a typical noun–forming derivational affix [TNFDA]
Environment– 3. can be preceded by a word that typically precedes a noun.
Inflectional Morpheme Chart
Morpheme Category Function

S Noun Number (plural)
S Noun Genitive (possessive)
S Verb 3rd, Singular, Present part
The 4 characteristics of a noun are:
number, gender, person, case
Noun Characteristic, Number: Define Productive Pluralization:
he productive pluralization is very basic – we just add S. Speakers of English instinctively know how to do it, the “regular” way of pluralizing. 3
If the last sound in a word is UNvoiced the plural is S
If the last sound in a word IS voiced, the plural is Z
If the last sound in a word is a sibilant [an S sound as in Buss] there’s the vowel sound+S
with an unvoiced S, the voiced sound is met with the voiced Z sound.
Explain Assimilation and Dissimilation (in the Productive/Number–charachteristic of a noun)
Dissimilation: Because there would be no distinction between sounds if you added an S or Z to a sibilant word, the vowel sound makes
Dissimilation: S–––es
Assimilation: The unvoiced sound is met the plural distinct. Assimilation: S––s S–––z
Suppletive (Nouns/Number Characteristic) are
irregular plurals. We have other was of suggesting number, but we don’t do it naturally, and there is no set process we apply, so we have to memorize which words are supplitive plurals.
There are 5 categories of Supplitive nouns. These irregular/supplitive nouns COULD be normalized, but they’re not because our ear recognizes them. The 5 categories are:
invariant, umlaut, consonantal, double, foreign
________are words that don’t change even when they’re made plural. Words like Deer, Moose, Sheep etc [largely livestock. No idea why that is ]
Invariant (nouns/number/suppletive)
___________ is when the Vowel sound changes within the word. Man Men. Mouse Mice.
Umlaut (noun/number/suppletive)
adding a consonant to the end of the noun to create a plural. Ox – Oxen. [I can’t think of any other examples, I fail, but this was the example used in class. En is an Old–English plural]
Consonantal (noun/number/suppletive)
Technically this is a _______ consonantal. The example used in class was Children. Cild in the old English + plural “ru” + plural “en” gives you “Cildruen” [which slurred and seen through 1500 years] = children. Other examples are things like Brethren.
Double (noun/number/suppletive)
Latin or Greek sounding endings which, in Latin or Greek sound ridiculous, and in English make a word plural. Dr. Peercy says this is “snob appeal” because, again, in Greek or Latin the words make no sense, but suggests we use them anyway because language is Protective Camouflage. Example – Datum  Data. Cactus  Cacti. Etc.
Foreign (noun/number/suppletive)
English is a language which uses natural ______. When something is in the masculine or feminine ______ it is specifically referring to something that is male or female. Not an inert object like… a spoon. In other languages gender is applied to other objects.
Noun Characteristic– Gender
Define the noun characteristic/Gender/Person, 1st, 2nd, and 3rd
1st person is addressing, 2nd person is being addressed, 3rd person is the object being discussed. I, You, They.
In English all non–pronoun objects are 3rd person unless presented with an appositive [which amplifies, clarifies, or extenuates]. For example, “Norman Peercy went to the store” is in the third person, unless it becomes “I, Norman Peercy, went to the store” where Norman Peercy is being used as an appositive.
What are the 4 parts of the noun characteristic –case?
Nominative, Accusative, Genitive, Absolute
–––––––––Is the SUBJECT of the verb. There are no formal markers which make a noun nominative, it just is. (noun/case/_____)
Nominative (noun/case/nominative)

The 'man' thanked the woman. subject
The 'woman' thanked the man. subject
– Is the OBJECT of the verb. There are no formal markers which make a noun accusative, so position in the sentence becomes vital. (noun/case/_____)
Accusative (noun/case/accusative)

The man thanked the 'woman'. object
The woman thanked the 'man'. object
_____'s Formal marker is to add S. this is the possessive case, but we call it “_______” because _______ has more range than “possessive” it covers authorship, ownership, and origination as well as possession. Ex. “Joyce’s Ulysses” and “Jess’s copy of Ulysses” don’t mean the same thing, even if the object is the same. This is the same for pronouns as well – His. Hers, theirs, end in S.
Genitive (noun/case/genitive) S Possesive
______ is a construct which is implicationally related to the sentence in which it is contained, but has no grammatical link.
__________ can, positionally, be anywhere in a sentence, front, middle, or end.
Absolute (noun/case/absolute)
The 3 types of Absolutes and their explanations:
Mere Exclamation, Direct Address (vocative), Nominative Absolute, Position
Explain :(Noun/Case/Absolute/)Mere Exclamation
1. Mere Exclamation – related most closely to exclamation, because it expresses the attitude or emotions of the speaker/writer.
“'Man', this is tedious.” – expresses attitude of frustration without affecting the clause [SP 2, btw]
“We need to, 'well', dump the body in the park.” – nerves.
“I want ice cream, 'gosh darn it'!”
Explain :(Noun/Case/Absolute/) Direct address
2. Direct address – also known as Vocative, a direct address, go figure, directly addresses an individual. It points a sentence to a specific location.
“Hey dude, Starbucks has pumpkin–spice lattes back in!”
“I need for you, Charlie, to explain exactly what happened.” [in this instance it’s both appositive and vocative]
“How’s about a beer, Boss?”
Explain :(Noun/Case/Absolute/) Nominative Absolute
Nominative Absolute – Called the most elegant structure in grammar. The nominative absolute is composed of a noun and a participle, it is NOT a clause. NOT NOT NOT a clause, because the NounParticiple combination carries no tense. I realize that none of that makes a damn bit of sense without examples, so here you go:

“Having discussed ice cream at length with Navin, I now want some.” – “I now want some” is the actual clause. It’s a pattern 7, a complete, independent clause. “Having discussed ice cream at length with Navin” is NOT a clause, it is the nominative absolute. “Having discussed” is the Participle, “Ice cream” would be the noun, everything else is window dressing.
The nominative absolute can function anywhere in a sentence. “I now, having discussed ice cream at length with Navin, want some.” and “I now want some, having discussed ice cream with Navin.”
Norm’s example was: “Having run out of booze, the party ended.” “Having run out” is the participle, “booze” is the noun. :D
“Tired from his exertions, the man shook with exhaustion.” Etc. etc.
Explain :(Noun/Case/Absolute/) Position
3. Position – Absolutes BY position, like everything else in this category, have no grammatical link to the sentence, but are implicationally related.
Things like titles – the headings on these notes etc. They’re implicationally linked in that they provide information for what is to follow, but they’re not part of what follows.
“The Pronoun Replacement Test for Participles and Participle Phrases” – this is a noun on page 185 of our textbook – it is a title of the following text, not it’s own sentence [obviously].
10 noun subclasses are:
(memorize the flow chart)
common, count, animate, concrete, human, proper, non–count, inanimate, abstract, not–human
These could be defined by a binary structure, +/–. They are hierarchical.
TNFDA – Traditional Noun Forming Derivational Affixes are:
Essentially, sticking an affix on the end of a verb or an adjective to turn it into a noun. This is #2 of the noun–definitions. A word may be a noun if it contains a TNFDA.
These affixes, while not comprehensive by any stretch, are a pretty good start.
The TNFDA affixes are:
Ment – Refine – Refinement. Amuse – Amusement etc.
Ard – Drunk – Drunkard.
Th – True – Truth.
Ude – Plenty – Plentitude. Exact – Exactitude.
Ness – Polite – Politeness. Serious – Seriousness.
Tion – Institute [used as a verb. Institute this policy please] – Institution.
Ar, Or, Er – Scholar, Actor, Teacher. All verbs – nouns.
The 5 types of 'Determiners' that typically precede nouns (or determine them) are:
Articles –definite 'the' and indefinite 'a, an'
Demonstratives– this, that, those, these
Genitives– 1.my, mine/ our ours 2. your, yours/your yours 3. his her hers its/ their theirs
Quantifiers– 'some' women, '25' soldiers
Most adjectives
Question Categories/ Reference Nouns are:
What–non–human
Who/Whom– human
Question Category Reference Adverbs are:
where, when, why, how, to what extent, under what circumstances
Question Categories/ Reference Adjectives
Which, What kind, How many, Whose
The three question categories are:
Reference nouns, reference adverbs, reference adjectives
Replaces a noun phrase (subject or object) or replaces an individual noun. _______ make language FLOW. They make it cohesive.
Pronouns
8 Types of Pronouns
Personal, Demonstrative, Relative, Interrogative, Reflexive, Intensive, Indefinite, Reciprocal

(I) Personally and Intensively Interrogated (my) Relatives. (They reacted) Reflexively (to my) Demonstration (and did not) Reciprocate (my opinion, therefore my pronoun findings were) Indefinite.
Pronominalization Rule
The first occurrence of a nominal is a full reference, the second and subsequent occurrences may/will be pronominalized until another reference occurs.
Personal Pronoun Nominative singular and plural words are:
1st I we, 2nd you you, 3rd He She It, They
(remember nominative means subject words)
Personal Pronoun Accusative words are:
1st Me us, 2nd you you, 3rd him her it, Them
(Remember that accusative words are object words)
Personal Pronoun Genitive
1st my mine, our ours 2nd your yours, 3rd his her hers Its, Its Theirs
(Remember that genitive means possesive)
Demonstrative Pronouns:
this that those these
Demonstrative pronouns provide 3 pieces of information:
1. The number, Singular or Plural
2. Definiteness/Specificity
3. Propinquity (relative nearness to the subject)
That poodle (singular, definite, comparatively far) is curled up in the armchair, whereas this poodle (singular, definite, comparatively near) is sitting next to me.

Demonstrative pronouns provide extra information. If you don’t NEED the extra information, you may as well use an article. Eg. “The poodle is curled up in the armchair.”
If the Demonstrative pronoun is followed by a Noun, it references_________
that noun. This Poodle is both large, and hairy.
If the demonstrative pronoun is followed by a Verb, it is referencing__________
a subject that is in a previous context. “This is fun.” The meaning of “this” is in a previous context.
“We went for a long run in the park today. That was awesome.”
That. The word “That” has 5 possible functions, it can be
1. Complementizer
2. Relative Pronoun
3. Demonstrative Pronoun
4. Subordinate conjunction 1
5. Subordinate conjunction 2
3 Major Recursive Devices:
Conjunction [both coordinate and subordinate]
Complementation
Relativization [relative clauses]
Imbedding means:
making a sentence bigger. A clause within a clause [which occurs w/recursiveness, hence the notation].
If a clause occurs INSIDE another sentence, it HAS to be_____
integrated/Subordinate. A subordinate clause begins with a subordinate conjunction [because, therefore, etc.] rendering it an adjective clause. If it DOES NOT contain a subordinate conjunction, the clause is an adverb.
Relative Pronouns 3 point definition:
1. Relative pronouns are juxtaposed to the head (co–referential to the head)
[“The Woman who was dog sitting” “the person who is dog sitting” and “the woman” are the same reference. Therefore, “Who was dog sitting, is co–referential to “the woman” which occurs at the head]
2. A relative pronoun introduces the clause in which it’s contained.
3. A relative pronoun has syntactic function within that clause.
Relative Pronoun ________creating a potentially infinite loop [like counting]. The cat that ate the rat that ate the cheese that had been made by farmer Brown who was married to Mrs. Brown who used to be Ms. Jenkins whose father was a senator who saved a kitten that was stuck up a tree which had been growing in a park for three hundred years just ran away. Etc.
Recursion
There are 6 relative pronouns that we usually classify.
1. Who (+Human, + Accusative, +/– Restrictive)
2. Whom (+Human, +Accusative, +/– Restrictive)
3. Which (–Human, Case not considered, +/– Restrictive)
4. That (–Human, Case not considered, + Restrictive – the only one!)
5. Whose (+Human, +Genitive, +/– Restrictive)
6. Of Which (–Human, +Genitive, +/– Restrictive)
classify who
+Human, + Nominative, +/– Restrictive
classify Whom
+Human, +Accusative, +/– Restrictive
classify Which
–Human, Case not considered, +/– Restrictive
classify That
–Human, Case not considered, + Restrictive – the only one!
classify Whose
+Human, +Genitive, +/– Restrictive
classify Of Which
–Human, +Genitive, +/– Restrictive
_______acts as a subject or a complement [Object/complement]
a nounphrase
Complement:
a) a word or group of words that completes a grammatical construction in the predicate and that describes or is identified with the subject or object, as “small” in “The house is small” or “president” in “They elected her president.”
b) any word or group of words used to complete a grammatical construction, esp. in the predicate, including adverbials, as “on the table” in “He put it on the table,” infinitives, as “To go” in “They are ready to go” and sometimes objects, as “ball” in “He caught the ball.”
Therefore – a pronoun works the same way 
Where ever there is a Noun Phrase, there can be a relative clause. It’s just true. NP(S)
there are 2 reasons we use Relative Pronouns:
1. To Identify a noun that is placed beside it (to render it an immediately understood reference, much like a proper/unique noun)
2. To add additional/new information.


1. “The cat that ate the rat died.” Identifies a specific cat, if there is more than one cat which ate a rat, the relative pronoun necessarily has to become more complex. “The cat that ate the rat which ate the moldy cheese.”

“Jack met the woman.”
Which woman? “The woman who wore flipflops.”  “Jack met the woman who wore flipflops”
If the audience knows which woman wore flipflops [in our classroom there were 8 of them that I could see. And I could only see 2 rows] then that’s all the restricting that is necessary. If we need more information we either change qualifiers “Jack met the woman [who was] in the red dress.”

2. Or add information “Jack met the woman who was wearing a red dress and who had the warrant out for her arrest.”
Punctuate: “Hemmingway’s finest novel which is The Old Man and the Sea is a public school standby”
shouldn’t be punctuated because “finest” is subjective and isn’t an immediate reference.
Punctuate: “Hemmingway’s first novel The Sun Also Rises is a public school standby”
“Hemmingway’s first novel, The Sun Also Rises, is a public school standby” however, should be punctuated because “first novel” is an immediate identification, rendering the actual title an appositive.
Vacuous move means:
the meaning of the sentence doesn’t change.
The warrant identified the woman. – [the woman] whom the warrant identified.
Any time the relative pronoun is not the subject of the relative clause,
it can be deleted.
Becomes |NP| |0| |NP| |V| |X|
Jack met |The woman| |0| |the warrant| |Identified| |X|
Type 1 Relative Reduction
If the relative pronoun is not the subject of a relative clause, it can be deleted.

If we delete the relative pronoun that is NOT the subject of the clause, the identity is still there, and the syntactic function is empty.

“A problem everyone who has driven and automobile has been called upon to solve may be used as an example of alternative and hypothetical reasoning in simple causes.”

“Everyone WHO has driven an automobile” – in this instance, WHO is the subject of the relative clause and so it cannot be deleted.

“A problem THAT everyone has been called upon to solve” – in this instance, THAT is NOT the subject [everyone is the subject] of the relative clause, and as we see above it has/can be deleted. “That” may be deleted or restored at will because it is not the subject of the clause.
_________are unique in that we use them BECAUSE we don’t know the initial reference, so they mess with the standard pronominalization rule. i.e. if we knew the initial reference, we wouldn’t have to ask.
Interrogative pronouns
There are 9 interrogative pronoun forms:
5 Nouns/Adjectives:
Who – Noun: + Human, + nominative.
Whom – Noun: + Human, + accusative
What – Noun: – Human, substitive
Whose – Adjective: +Genitive
Which – Adjective + Definite/particularizing.
4 Adverbial pronoun Forms:
When – provides time
Where – Location
Why – Motive/Reason
How – Process
Method by which we ask questions: (3 items)
1. Pronominalize
2. Transport
3. Subject/verb inversion.

"Who did you go to the party with?"
"You went to the party with James."

If “James/Who” is the subject, “go to the party” is the verb, we see how this functions. What was “James” at the end of the sentence becomes “who” at the head. Pronominalize – Transport = subject/verb inversion.
_____________are looking for truth/falsity. Posing the question in this way indicates the kind of information we’re looking for.
Yes/No or Short Answer questions
Contrary to popular belief, Yes/No and Short Answer questions are the ONLY questions which change
the intonation curve. A typical question, one using an interrogative, has the same intonation as a statement.
__________can technically stand on their own when posing a question, though it sounds archaic: “Have you any chocolate?” opposed to:
“Do you have any chocolate about your person?” “No. Did you really think I would?”
Be verbs
__________is the normative process for asking a question. It sets up certain expectations of the answer. Though there are questions that violate the transformative process, they carry a different implication. These questions are known as hook questions.
The transformative process
_________are pronouns used as an complement/predicate which reflect back upon the subject.
Reflexive forms

“She cut herself.” Is a basic sentence pattern #7 where the predicate reflects back on the subject. The subject and the predicate are co–referential. They fit any sentence pattern with a NP in the object position – “He is not himself today” = #3
The reflexive pronoun screws with passifying [making passive… there has to be a gerund for that word] a sentence. Typically, any sentence with a transitive verb can be made passive, but because reflexive forms are co–referential they cannot be.
Reflexive Personal Pronoun Paradigm
1st person: myself/ ourselves (genitive + self/selves)
2nd Person: Yourself/ Yourselves (genitive + self/selves)
3rd Person: Himself, Herself, Itself/ Themselves (accusative +self/selves)
__________are essentially reflexive pronouns used appositionally.
Intensive pronouns

Eg. “Alice herself did the dishes.” The use of the intensive pronoun “herself” here suggests there is something unusual about Alice’s doing the dishes; it amplifies the importance of Alice. If we say “Alice did the dishes” the essential meaning doesn’t change, but without external context, the amplification/emphasis is lost.
“Alice did the dishes herself” is the same sentence; the intensive pronoun is simply in a different location. Because “Herself” refers back to something feminine, it has to refer back to the head, which is Alice, instead of “dishes”
_________is a Noun or Pronoun that is juxtaposed to a nominal to restate, amplify, or intensify the statement. [_______: Amplify, Restate, or Further Extenuate!]
So “Jessica, the student, is finally catching on.” “The student” in this sentence restates and gives meaning to the nominal “Jessica” and therefore functions as an __________.
An appositive
The Intensive pronoun paradigm is identical to the
reflexive
_______like interrogative pronouns, messes with the pronominalization rule. They do not have a stated antecedent, so we don’t know the range. The pronoun is non–determinant.
Indefinite pronouns
There are 3 categories + Combining forms of Indefinite pronouns.
1. Quantifiers: enough, few, fewer, less, little, many, much, more, most
2. Universals: all, both, every, each
3. Partitives: Any, either, neither, none, some.

Partitives sectionalize, they subdivide any given group. “Some of you in this classroom are wearing sandals” subdivides the classroom. “Anyone with a cleft palate blah blah blah” etc.
_________ sectionalize, they subdivide any given group. “Some of you in this classroom are wearing sandals” subdivides the classroom. “Anyone with a cleft palate blah blah blah” etc.
Partitives
Combine forms of Universal and Partitive:
Universal: {Every + Body, Thing, One} = Everybody, Everything, Everyone
Partitive: {Any, No, Some + Body, Thing, One} = Anybody, Nobody, Somebody,
"_______" is the penultimate pronoun and can function in ways which other pronouns cannot. While other pronouns replace noun phrases, “_____” can replace individual nouns within the noun phrase.
one

Eg. “Did you see the woman who walked down the hall? Man was she beautiful!” “Which one?” “The one who walked down the hall.” – “One” replaces/pronominalizes “the woman.” Or, “The big hungry dog.” Can become “The big hungry one” they’re always hungry though, so maybe “hungry” isn’t the best modifier for dogs… :)
In a passive sentence, the indefinite pronoun can be
deleted.
Deleting indefinite pronouns in a passive sentence is really deleting a redundancy clause. This is NOT type 1 relative reduction, but it’s similar enough. Indefinite pronouns do not label a specific subject, so by making a statement that’s subject is an indefinite passive, we can remove agency.
Eg. Active: “Someone choked the kitten.”
Passive: “The kitten was choked by someone”
Passive deleted: “The kitten was choked.” We remove agency, because it doesn’t matter.
Modification: Indefinite pronouns allow us to
post–pose a modifying adjective.
Eg. “I want someone sweet.” “sweet” modifies “someone.” The meaning of the sentence would change from “I want someone who is sweet” to “I want this person to be sweet” if we said “I want Sally sweet.” It doesn’t really make sense.
Alternate example: “He placed something important in the barrel.” “Important” modifies “something,” not “barrel,” so it too is postposed.
Social reciprocity is “a response in kind” – *** for tat, etc. ___________ pronouns are pretty much the same thing. They relate equally to each other.
Reciprocal
There are only 2 basic reciprocal pronouns.
Each other – refers to 2 individual things
Another – refers to multiple individual things

Alternate form eg. Matthew Arnold, in his poem “The Dover Beach” writes “Let us be true, one to the other” “One to the other” is a form of “One another”
a vowel gradation, i.e. it is the process by which the radical (stem) vowel in an irregular verb is changed from present to past tense (also, usually changes the past participle form).
An ablaut
The term ______ has two sense in grammar: 1) it is a nominal that has an implicational relationship to the sentence in which it is contained, but has no grammatical relationship (function); 2) it is condition in which there is no middle term, such as in suppletive forms of adverbs and adjectives and in the exclusive either/or correlative conjunction.
Absolute
__________takes an adverb that has been generated at the end of the sentence and moves it to the front of the sentence.
Adverb movement
_________is the process whereby a sentence pattern is reduced to a complex noun phrase.
Complementation
____________ is a word (morpheme) that acts as the subordinator in complementation.
Complementizer
A __________ is a coordinating conjunction that joins clauses and indicated the logical relationship between the clauses that it joins.
Conjunctive adverb
A __________ is a linking verb, in particular the "Be" verb
Copula
A ________ is a participle functioning as a noun, also described as a Ving form functioning as a noun.
Gerund
___________ is a classification of nouns (also adjectives) that is not gender specific.
Grammatical gender
The ___________ is the mood of command and is characterized by being headless (no stated subject) and using the infinitive stem of the verb.
Imperative mood
The ____________ is the mood of everyday discourse, with statements based on fact or the assumption of fact; it is also the only mood that can be fully conjugated in English.
Indicative mood
____________ has the same form for both singular and plural.
Invariant noun:
__________ is the smallest non–divisible part of a proposition.
Nexus
_________ is a nominal absolute with the internal structure of a noun phrase modified by a participle.
Nominative absolute
An ________ class admits new members
Open class
___________ is the removal of redundant information in an adjoining clause or sentence pattern up to the point of distinctiveness.
Overlap deletion
A __________ is formed using the preposition "of."
Periphrastic Genitive
_____________ means a process by which new members are admitted into a class.
Productive
A _______ pronoun is one that is juxtaposed to its head, introduces the relative clause, and has a syntactic function in the clause.
Relative pronoun
____________is the repetition of material unnecessarily.
Redundancy
The first mention of a nominal is a full reference: thereafter, it is pronominalized until a new reference intervenes.
Rule of Pronominalization
A _________ is one that modifies the entire sentence.
Sentential adverb
____________are nexal patterns in the language based on the internal structure involved in the formation of the verb phrase.
Sentences patterns
____________ is a short answer question formed by a subject/verb inversion and a change in the intonation pattern to a rising inflection.
Tag question
_____________________ types a are simple, complex, compound, and compound complex.
Traditional grammatical sentence classification
______ verb is an irregular verb, one that forms its past tense by affecting the pitch of the vowel in the verb stem.
Strong verb
____________ is a word that joins two clauses together and in the process makes the clause it introduces dependent (subordinate) by satisfying one of 10 subordinate conjunction functions.
Subordinate conjunction
______________ is the mood of doubting, cautious, contrary to fact, tentative, wish fulfillment statements or utterances.
Subjunctive mood
A __________ is an irregular form.
Suppletive
The term ________ means direct address.
Vocative
___________ is a regular verb, i.e., one that forms its past tense by adding a dental suffix to the stem.
Weak verb
A ____________ is a short answer question formed by a subject/verb inversion and a change in the intonation pattern to a rising inflection.
Yes/no questions:
___________is an auxiliary verb that satisfies the formula
{Be/Have} X
to.
A periphrastic modal
a vowel gradation, i.e. it is the process by which the radical (stem) vowel in an irregular verb is changed from present to past tense (also, usually changes the past participle form).
An ablaut
The term ______ has two sense in grammar: 1) it is a nominal that has an implicational relationship to the sentence in which it is contained, but has no grammatical relationship (function); 2) it is condition in which there is no middle term, such as in suppletive forms of adverbs and adjectives and in the exclusive either/or correlative conjunction.
Absolute
__________takes an adverb that has been generated at the end of the sentence and moves it to the front of the sentence.
Adverb movement
_________is the process whereby a sentence pattern is reduced to a complex noun phrase.
Complementation
____________ is a word (morpheme) that acts as the subordinator in complementation.
Complementizer
A __________ is a coordinating conjunction that joins clauses and indicated the logical relationship between the clauses that it joins.
Conjunctive adverb
A __________ is a linking verb, in particular the "Be" verb
Copula
A ________ is a participle functioning as a noun, also described as a Ving form functioning as a noun.
Gerund
___________ is a classification of nouns (also adjectives) that is not gender specific.
Grammatical gender
The ___________ is the mood of command and is characterized by being headless (no stated subject) and using the infinitive stem of the verb.
Imperative mood
The ____________ is the mood of everyday discourse, with statements based on fact or the assumption of fact; it is also the only mood that can be fully conjugated in English.
Indicative mood
____________ has the same form for both singular and plural.
Invariant noun:
__________ is the smallest non–divisible part of a proposition.
Nexus
_________ is a nominal absolute with the internal structure of a noun phrase modified by a participle.
Nominative absolute
An ________ class admits new members
Open class
___________ is the removal of redundant information in an adjoining clause or sentence pattern up to the point of distinctiveness.
Overlap deletion
A __________ is formed using the preposition "of."
Periphrastic Genitive
_____________ means a process by which new members are admitted into a class.
Productive
A _______ pronoun is one that is juxtaposed to its head, introduces the relative clause, and has a syntactic function in the clause.
Relative pronoun
____________is the repetition of material unnecessarily.
Redundancy
The first mention of a nominal is a full reference: thereafter, it is pronominalized until a new reference intervenes.
Rule of Pronominalization
A _________ is one that modifies the entire sentence.
Sentential adverb
____________are nexal patterns in the language based on the internal structure involved in the formation of the verb phrase.
Sentences patterns
____________ is a short answer question formed by a subject/verb inversion and a change in the intonation pattern to a rising inflection.
Tag question
_____________________ types a are simple, complex, compound, and compound complex.
Traditional grammatical sentence classification
______ verb is an irregular verb, one that forms its past tense by affecting the pitch of the vowel in the verb stem.
Strong verb
____________ is a word that joins two clauses together and in the process makes the clause it introduces dependent (subordinate) by satisfying one of 10 subordinate conjunction functions.
Subordinate conjunction
______________ is the mood of doubting, cautious, contrary to fact, tentative, wish fulfillment statements or utterances.
Subjunctive mood
A __________ is an irregular form.
Suppletive
The term ________ means direct address.
Vocative
___________ is a regular verb, i.e., one that forms its past tense by adding a dental suffix to the stem.
Weak verb
A ____________ is a short answer question formed by a subject/verb inversion and a change in the intonation pattern to a rising inflection.
Yes/no questions:
___________is an auxiliary verb that satisfies the formula
{Be/Have} X
to.
A periphrastic modal
Adjective Definition, notional and functional:
Notional: an adjective is a word that modifies a noun. Collocates with – when we think of a noun, we also think of things that group with that noun. In my case “Car: red, Fast, truck, freedom”

Functional:
1. a word may be an adjective if it can accept an adjectival inflectional morpheme [er – est]
2. a word may be an adjective if it contains a typical adjective forming derivational affix.–ic, phobic, y, ly, cowardly, ous, magnanimous, al psychological, ate deliberate, ful bountiful, ible, able ish etc.
3. a word may be an adjective if it is preceded by a word that typically precedes and adjective. These are manner adverbs and degree adverbs.
2 types of adjectives
Limiting – circumscribing. Numbers or restricts the noun. “Sixteen candles” or “most people”
Descriptive – describes aspect or attribute of the noun. “long neck” “purple undies.”
3 Degrees of adjectives –
Normative – no degree, like simple verbs this is the baseline. Pretty. Radiant.
Comparative – comparing two groups, marked [typically] by “+er” or +more. Prettier, more radiant.
Superlative – Comparing 3+ groups, marked [typically] by “+est” or +most. Prettiest, most radiant.
Supplitive adjectives – [like supplitive everything elses] are
irregular, meaning that the comparative and superlative forms are different, not +er or +est. Eg. Good – Good  Better  Best instead of Gooder  Goodest.
Absolute adjectives cannot be made ____________
comparative or superlative.
The law of the excluded middle. one thing cannot be more–dead or deader than another. Full or not full.
Technically, we DO make these comparative and superlative, but we do it by using “more nearly” and “most nearly.”
A predicative adjective follows a
linking verb (sentence pattern 2)
An Attributive adjective appears in front of
a noun
5 Questions for an Adjective
what kind
which
whose
how much
how many
3 Adjectival structures:
single
phrasal
clausal
single adjectives are:
the base form
3 types of phrasal adjectives
Prepositional phrases can function as either adjectives or adverbs
Participle Phrases – An adjective or complement to certain auxiliaries that is regularly derived from the verb in many languages, and refers to participation in the action or state of the verb; A verbal form used as an adjective. It does not specify person or number in English, but may show tense. “A burning candle.” Or “A devoted friend”
Infinitive phrases – a verb form found in many languages that functions as a noun or is used with auxiliary verbs, and that names the action or state without specifying the subject. It makes me sad that “To infinity and beyond” isn’t an infinitive.
Clausal adjectives are:
Relative clauses [for the moment, that’s it. Relative clauses]
Under limiting and descriptive, there are 4 other types of adjectives:
True, Suppletive, Absolute, Unique
Position – The four positions that an adjective can occupy.
Prenominal – Attributive adjective, occurs in front of the noun.
Predicative – following a linking verb [sentence patterns 2 and 4 only]
Object Complement – Follows a direct object [sentence pattern #9]
Postposed – Follows the noun, but doesn’t present any particular function. Generally the noun it follows is an INDEFINITE PRONOUN. “I want something sweet” Sweet is the adjective, “something” is the indefinite pronoun.
Definition of an Adverb notional and functional:
Definitions:
Notional – A word that modifies a verb [Ad to verb], adjective, or other adverb.
There are 22 classifications of adverbs. We’re not covering all of them. Breathe.

Functional –
A word may be an adverb if it can accept an inflectional morpheme [er/est]
A word may be an adverb if it contains a typical adjective forming derivational affix: ly, ward, wise
A word may be an adverb if it is preceded by a word that typically precedes an adverb.
3 Adverbs structural representation:
1. Singly [self explanatory]
2. phrase groups [Prepositional phrases and infinitive phrases]
3. Clauses [Which are invariably introduced by a subordinate conjunction]
Adverb Questions
when, where, why, how, to what extent
3 Degrees in Adverbs
normative, comparitive, superlative
3 types of Adverbs
Manner, Sentential, Degree
Manner adverbs
tend to be LY adverbs, because they describe the manner of the action. “She danced beautifully” describes the manner in which she danced. “He ate ravenously” etc.
Sentential adverbs 2
Modify the whole sentence.
Persuasive Device
T “Obviously you see my point. ” “Surely you understand that purple elephants are superior to the green ones.” The adjective makes a comment on whatever follows. Diagrams like an exclamation
Basic Sentence Structure of English
Subject Verb Compliment
Rule of Adverb Movement
NP V x Adv
1
2 3 4 = 4123
Explain "There" insertion and the difference between and existential operator and an adverb.
Existential Operator (Existential is either a nominal or an interjection):
"There is an animal in the room. 'An is an indefinite, therefore, 'there' is existential"
There are 27 animals in the room––existential
There is the animal in the room– Adverb
There are those animals in the room– Adverb
There are these animals in the room– Adverb
3 Coordinate Conjunctions
Simple, Correlative, Conjunctive Adverbs
Simple Conjunctions
and, or, but, (so)
Correlative Conjunctions
either/or
neither/nor
not only/but also
both/and
conjunctive Adverbs:
therefore, never the less, moreover, hence, thus, yet consequently, however
Conjunctions=________ values
Truth Values;
and= true, true
either/or= one must be true
And/or= inclusive
Either/or= exclusive
but= contrast
so= conclusion
2 kinds of conjunctions
Coordinate, Subordinate
define Subordinate Conjunction
A word or short string of words that joins 2 clauses and makes the clause a dependent, adverbial clause.
10 functions which subordinate conjunctions fulfill
TEMP2R2C3
Time, Evidence, Manner, Purpose, Place, REason, Result, Concession, Condition, Comparison

Ex.

1. She came after he left. – Time
2. He is here for I hear his laughter. – Evidence
3. She started as if she’d been shot. – Manner
4. They died so that we might live. – Purpose
5. She went where he wanted to go. – Place
6. They went because they thought it was their duty. – Reason
7. He was so popular that they elected him class clown. – Result
8. She will go if you’ll pay her way. – Condition
9. I started out although I didn’t want to – Concession
10. He is as strong as an ox. Comparison. (___ as X as ___ works pretty invariantly. X can be anything. As strong as an ox, as slow as a turtle, as weak as a butterfly etc as silly as a simile)
Verb notional definition and functional:
A word may be a verb if it can accept an inflective morpheme [s, ed, en]
A word may be a verb if it contains a typical verb forming derivational affix.
A word may be a verb if it can be preceded by a word that typically precedes a verb.
A verb provides 5 (+1) pieces of information [beyond the obvious]. Memorize these, they’re important!
VATPNM
1. Voice – Active/Passive
2. Aspect – Simple [0], Progressive, Perfect, Perfect Progressive
3. Tense – Past, present, future
4. Person – 1st, 2nd, 3rd
5. Number – Singular/Plural
6. (Mood – Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive: most of the time we speak in Indicative, our superlative and subjunctive moods exist, but we don’t generally use formal markers, which is why this is in parentheses.)
3 Moods we discussed
Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive
Indicative mood means
the mood of every day discourse
Imperative mood means
mood of command
headless verb
Subjunctive mood
The mood of doubt, tentative, caustious, contrary to fact, wish fullfillment, polite conversation
once upon a time,
Subjunctive Mood uses 3 kinds of conditions
sufficient condition– if
necessary condition– only if
necessary sufficient condition– if and only if
Modals are:
Auxiliary verbs which place a condition on a main verb. Whether it is a true modal or a periphrastic modal, they fulfill the same conditions.
Modal Conditions:
OPAFAN
Obligation, Permission, Actuality, Futurity, Ability, Necessity
10 True Modals Syntactic Present and Past
Present: May can will shall must out to
Past: might could would should
2 Types of Modals
True/periphrsatic
Periphrastic Modals
(be/have) X to
Modals fulfill 3 functions
question emphasis negation
Which True modal express these conditions:
Permission
Possibility
Necessity
obligation
futurity
Permission may
Possibility might
necessity must
obligation ought to
futurity will
Which periphrastic modals express these conditions:
Permission
Possibility
Necessity
obligation
futurity
Permission be allowed to
Possibility am able to
Necessity have got to
obligation have to
futurity am going to
Passive Voice is marked by:
B+ past participle
4 types of Aspect
simple, progressive, perfect, perfect–progressive
Active Progressive formula
be+Ving (I am biting)
Active Perfect formula
Hve/Has/Had +Ven (I have bitten)
Active Perfect Progressive formula
Has/Had/Have+ [Ven+Be] + Ving (I have been biting)
Passive Simple formula
Be+Ven (I am bitten)
Passive Progressive formula
Be+ (be+Ving {being}) + Ven. (I am being bitten)
Passive Perfect Formula
Have/Has/Had +(Be+Ven {been})+ ven “I have been bitten.”
Passive Perfect Progressive
Has/Had/Have+[Ven+Be={been}]+[be+ving]+Ven “I have been being bitten”
Define Participle
A verb used as an adjective
Winning Coaches
Blushing Maidens
Sanded Floors
Understood Subject
Relative REduction type 1
NP Rel Pro Np V X= 1,0,3,4,5
Relative Reduction type 2
NP Relpro Be X= 1,0,0,4
I saw the man who was running the show.
I saw the man running the show.
Present and Past Participle formula:
Present= Ving The man (running the projector)–adj is...
Past= Ven The man beholden to Zues was Thor.
Gerund
Participle functioning as a noun
Running the projector is fun.
Running is a great sport.