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vce

Vce

by patricialiddle11, Oct. 2008

Subjects: learning memory rm

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285 Cards in this Set

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	Absolute refractory period	- The period during which a neuron lies dormant after an action potential has been completed.
	Absolute threshold	- The minimum amount of stimulation needed for a person to detect the stimulus 50 percent of the time.
	Accommodation	- The process by which the shape of an eye’s lens adjusts to focus light from objects nearby or far away. Also: the modification of a schema as new information is incorporated.
	Acetylcholine	- A neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, attention, arousal, memory, and emotion.
	Achievement motive	- An impulse to master challenges and reach a high standard of excellence.
	Achievement tests	- An assessment that measures skills and knowledge that people have already learned.
	Acronym	- A word made out of the first letters of several words.
	Acrostic	- A sentence or phrase in which each word begins with a letter that acts as a memory cue.
	Action potential	- A short-lived change in electric charge inside a neuron.
	Absolute refractory period	- The period during which a neuron lies dormant after an action potential has been completed.
	Absolute threshold	- The minimum amount of stimulation needed for a person to detect the stimulus 50 percent of the time.
	Accommodation	- The process by which the shape of an eye’s lens adjusts to focus light from objects nearby or far away. Also: the modification of a schema as new information is incorporated.
	Acetylcholine	- A neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, attention, arousal, memory, and emotion.
	Achievement motive	- An impulse to master challenges and reach a high standard of excellence.
	Achievement tests	- An assessment that measures skills and knowledge that people have already learned.
	Acronym	- A word made out of the first letters of several words.
	Acrostic	- A sentence or phrase in which each word begins with a letter that acts as a memory cue.
	Action potential	- A short-lived change in electric charge inside a neuron.
	Activation-synthesis theory	- A theory proposing that neurons in the brain activate randomly during REM sleep.
	Active listening	- A feature of client-centered th erapy that involves empathetic listening, by which the therapist echoes, restates, and clarifies what the client says.
	Adaptation	- An inherited characteristic that increases in a population because it provides a survival or reproductive advantage.
	Adaptive behaviors	- Behaviors that increase reproductive success.
	Additive strategy	- The process of listing the attributes of each element of a decision, weighing them according to importance, adding them up, and determining which one is more appealing based on the result.
	Adoption studies	- Studies in which researchers examine trait similarities between adopted children and their biological and adoptive parents to figure out whether that trait might be inherited.
	Adrenal cortex	- The outer part of the adrenal glands, which secretes corticosteroids.
	Adrenal medulla	- The inner part of the adrenal glands, which secretes catecholamines.
	Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)	- A hormone released by the pituitary gland that stimulates release of corticosteroids from the adrenal cortex.
	Afferent nerves	- Bundles of axons that carry information from muscles and sense organs to the central nervous system.
	Afterimage	- A color we perceive after another color is removed.
	Age of viability	- The point at which a fetus has some chance of surviving outside the mother if born prematurely.
	Agonists	- Chemicals that mimic the action of a particular neurotransmitter.
	Agoraphobia	- A disorder involving anxiety about situations from which escape would be difficult or embarrassing or places where there might be no help if a panic attack occurred.
	Algorithm	- A step-by-step procedure that is guaranteed to solve a problem.
	All-or-none law	- States that neurons fire to generate an action potential only if stimulation reaches a minimum threshold.
	Alpha waves	- Type of brain waves present when a person is very relaxed or meditating.
	Acetylcholine	- A neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, attention, arousal, memory, and emotion.
	Acronym	- A word made out of the first letters of several words.
	Acrostic	- A sentence or phrase in which each word begins with a letter that acts as a memory cue.
	Action potential	- A short-lived change in electric charge inside a neuron.
	Adaptation	- An inherited characteristic that increases in a population because it provides a survival or reproductive advantage.
	Adaptive behaviors	- Behaviors that increase reproductive success.
	Alternate-forms reliability	- The ability of a test to produce the same results when two different versions of it are given to the same group of people.
	Amygdala	- A part of the limbic system of the brain that is involved in regulating aggression and emotions, particularly fear.
	Anterograde amnesia	- An inability to remember events that occurred after a brain injury or traumatic event.
	Aptitude tests	- An assessment that predicts people’s future ability to acquire skills or knowledge.
	Auditory nerve	- A nerve that sends impulses from the ear to the brain.
	Axon	- A fiber that extends from a neuron and sends signals to other neurons.
	Behavior therapies	- Treatments involving complex conversations between therapists and clients that are aimed at directly influencing maladaptive behaviors through the use of learning principles.
	Beta waves	- The type of brain waves present when a person is awake and alert.
	Bias	- The distortion of results by a variable that is not part of the hypothesis.
	Borderline personality disorder	- A disorder characterized by impulsive behavior and unstable relationships, emotions, and self-image.
	Brain	- The main organ in the nervous system.
	Brain waves	- Tracings that show the electrical activity of the brain.
	Broca’s area	- A part of the brain, in the left frontal lobe, that is involved in speech production.
	Case study	- A research method in which an individual subject is studied in depth.
	Central nervous system	- The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and the spinal cord.
	Chunking	- The process of combining small bits of information into bigger, familiar pieces.
	Classical conditioning	- A type of learning in which a subject comes to respond to a neutral stimulus as he would to another stimulus by learning to associate the two stimuli. It can also be called respondent conditioning or Pavlovian conditioning.
	Cognition	- Thinking. It involves mental activities such as understanding, problem solving, decision making, and creativity.
	Cognitive development	- The development of thinking capacity.
	Cognitive schema	- A mental model of some aspect of the world.
	Computerized tomography (CT)	- A method for studying the brain that involves taking x-rays of the brain from different angles.
	Concept	- A mental category that groups similar objects, events, qualities, or actions.
	Conditioned response	- In classical and operant conditioning, a response that resembles an unconditioned response, achieved by pairing a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.
	Conditioned stimulus	- In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus that comes to evoke a response similar to an unconditioned response through pairing with an unconditioned stimulus.
	Cones	- Photoreceptor cells in the retina that allow people to see in color.
	Confabulation	- A phenomenon in which a person thinks he or she remembers something that did not really happen.
	Confirmation bias	- The tendency to look for and accept evidence that supports what one wants to believe and to ignore or reject evidence that refutes those beliefs.
	Conscious	- The part of the mind that contains all the information that a person is paying attention to at a particular time.
	Consciousness	- The awareness people have of themselves and the environment around them.
	Consolidation	- Transfer of information into long-term memory.
	Continuous reinforcement	- A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement happens every time a particular response occurs.
	Control group	- A group of subjects in an experiment that receives the same treatment and is treated exactly like the experimental group, except with respect to the independent variable.
	Correlation coefficient	- A measurement that indicates the strength of the relationship between two variables. In a positive correlation, one variable increases as the other increases. In a negative correlation, one variable decreases as the other increases.
	Correlational research method	- A research method that provides information about the relationship between variables. It is also called a descriptive research method.
	Criterion validity	- A test’s ability to predict another criterion of the characteristic being measured.
	Decay theory	- A theory stating that memory traces fade with time.
	Declarative memory	- The remembering of factual information. Declarative memory is usually considered explicit.
	Deductive reasoning	- The process by which a particular conclusion is drawn from a set of general premises or statements.
	Delta waves	- The type of brain waves present when a person is deeply asleep.
	Dementia	- A condition characterized by several significant psychological deficits.
	Dendrite	- A fiber that extends from a neuron. It received signals from other neurons and sends them toward the cell body.
	Dendritic trees	- Highly branched fibers extending from neurons.
	Dependent variable	- The variable that is observed in an experiment and that may be affected by manipulations of the independent variable.
	Descriptive statistics	- Numbers that researchers use to describe their data so it can be organized and summarized.
	Discriminative stimulus	- In operant conditioning, a cue that indicates the kind of consequence that’s likely to occur after a response.
	Dissociative amnesia	- A disorder characterized by an inability to remember extensive, important personal information, usually about something traumatic or painful.
	Divergent thinking	- A style of thinking in which people’s thoughts go off in different directions as they try to generate many different solutions to a problem.
	Dopamine	- A neurotransmitter involved in voluntary movement, learning, memory, and emotion.
	Double-blind	- A procedure in which neither the subjects nor the experimenter knows which subjects belong to the experimental and control groups.
	Echoic memory	- Auditory sensory memory.
	Elaboration	- A type of deep processing in which information being learned is associated with other meaningful material.
	Electric stimulation of the brain	- An invasive method of studying the brain, in which an implanted electrode activates a particular brain structure.
	Electrocardiograph (EKG)	- An instrument that records the activity of the heart.
	Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)	- A biomedical treatment that uses electrical shocks to treat severe depression.
	Electroencephalograph (EEG)	- A device that records the overall electrical activity of the brain, via electrodes placed on the scalp.
	Electromyograph (EMG)	- An instrument that records muscle activity.
	Electrooculograph (EOG)	- An instrument that records eye movements.
	Encoding	- The process of putting information into memory.
	Episodic memory	- The remembering of personal facts.
	Ethics	- A system of moral values.
	Etiology	- The cause or origin of a disorder.
	Evolution	- A change in the frequency of genes in a population.
	Expected value	- The process of adding the value of a win times the probability of a win to the value of a loss times the probability of a loss in order to make a decision.
	Experiment	- A research method that provides information about causal relationships between variables.
	Experimental group	- A group of subjects in an experiment for whom the independent variable is manipulated.
	Experimenter bias	- A source of error that arises when researchers’ preferences or expectations influence the outcome of research.
	Explicit memory	- Conscious, intentional remembering of information.
	Extinction	- In classical conditioning, the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response when a conditioned stimulus is not followed by an unconditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, it’s the gradual disappearance of a response after it stops being reinforced.
	Extraneous variable	- A variable other than the independent variable that could affect the dependent variable. It is not part of the hypothesis.
	Factor analysis	- A statistical procedure that clusters variables into dimensions depending on similarities among the variables.
	Falsifiability	- The ability of a theory or hypothesis to be rejected.
	Fixed-interval schedule	- A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement happens after a set amount of time.
	Fixed-ratio schedule	- A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement happens after a set number of responses.
	Flashbulb memories	- Vivid, detailed memories of important events.
	Forebrain	- The biggest and most complex part of the brain, which includes structures such as the thalamus, the hypothalamus, the limbic system, and the cerebrum.
	Forgetting curve	- A graph that shows how quickly learned information is forgotten over time.
	Frequency	- The number of times per second a sound wave cycles from the highest to the lowest point.
	GABA	- The main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.
	Galvanic skin response	- An increase in the skin’s rate of electrical conductivity. It is also known as an electrodermal response.
	Gambler’s fallacy	- The false belief that a chance event is more likely if it hasn’t happened recently.
	Gender	- A learned distinction between masculinity and femininity.
	Group	- A social unit composed of two or more people who interact and depend on one another in some way.
	Hierarchical classification	- The ability to classify according to more than one level.
	Higher-order conditioning	- In classical conditioning, the process by which a neutral stimulus comes to act as a conditioned stimulus by being paired with another stimulus that already evokes a conditioned response.
	Hindsight bias	- The tendency to interpret the past in a way that fits the present.
	Histogram or bar graph	- A plot that shows how data are distributed.
	Hormones	- Chemicals that are produced in glands and released into the bloodstream, involved in regulating body functions.
	Hypothesis	- A testable prediction of what is going to happen given a certain set of conditions.
	Iconic memory	- Visual sensory memory.
	Implicit memory	- Unconscious retention of information that affects thoughts and behavior.
	Incentive	- An environmental stimulus that pulls people to act in a particular way.
	Independent variable	- The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.
	Inductive reasoning	- The drawing of a general conclusion from certain premises or statements.
	Inferential statistics	- Statistics used to determine the likelihood that a result is just due to chance.
	Informed consent	- A subject’s voluntary agreement to participate in a research study, given after he or she has learned enough about the study to make a knowledgeable decision to participate.
	Ingroup	- A group to which one belongs.
	Innate abilities	- Abilities that are present from birth.
	Intelligence quotient (IQ)	- A person’s mental age divided by his or her chronological age and multiplied by 100.
	Interference theory	- States that people forget information because of interference from other learned information.
	Intermittent reinforcement	- A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement happens only on some of the occasions a particular response occurs. It is also called partial reinforcement.
	Internal locus of control	- The tendency to believe that one has control over one’s circumstances.
	Interpretation	- A psychoanalytic technique that involves suggesting the hidden meanings of free associations, dreams, feelings, memories, and behavior to the client.
	Interval schedule	- The schedule in which reinforcement happens after a particular time interval.
	Kinesthesis	- The sense of the position and movement of body parts.
	Laboratory observation	- An observational research method in which information about subjects is collected in a laboratory setting.
	Law of effect	- A law proposed by Edward Thorndike stating that any behavior that has good consequences will tend to be repeated, and any behavior that has bad consequences will tend to be avoided.
	Learning	- A change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience.
	Long-term memory	- A memory system that stores an unlimited amount of information permanently.
	Long-term potentiation	- A lasting change at synapses that occurs when long-term memories form.
	Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)	- A method for studying the brain that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce pictures of the brain.
	Matching hypothesis	- The idea that people tend to pick partners who are about equal in level of attractiveness to themselves.
	Maturation	- Genetically programmed growth and development.
	Mean	- The arithmetic average of a set of scores.
	Measures of central tendency	- The mean, median, and mode.
	Median	- The middle score in a set when all scores are arranged in order from lowest to highest.
	Memory	- The capacity for storing and retrieving information.
	Method of loci	- The process of imagining oneself physically in a familiar place in order to remember something.
	Mnemonics	- Strategies for improving memory.
	Mode	- The most frequently occurring score in a set of scores.
	Motivated forgetting	- The idea that people forget things they don’t want to remember; also called psychogenic amnesia.
	Motor development	- The increasing coordination of muscles that makes physical movements possible.
	Naturalistic observation	- A method of collecting information about subjects in a natural setting without interfering with them in any way.
	Negative correlation	- A relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other one decreases.
	Negatively skewed distribution	- A data distribution with a few very low scores.
	Negative punishment	- In operant conditioning, the removal of a stimulus after a response so that the response will be less likely to occur.
	Negative reinforcement	- In operant conditioning, the removal of a stimulus after a response so that the response will be more likely to occur.
	Nervous system	- A complex, highly coordinated network of tissues that communicate via electrochemical signals.
	Neurons	- Nervous system cells that communicate via electrochemical signals.
	Neurotransmitters	- Chemicals that are released from a neuron and activate another neuron.
	Normal distribution	- A symmetrical bell-shaped curve that represents how characteristics such as IQ are distributed in a large population.
	Observational learning	- A change in behavior or knowledge that happens by watching others. It can also be called vicarious conditioning.
	Occam’s razor	- See principle of parsimony.
	Operant conditioning	- A type of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences.
	Operational definition	- A way of stating precisely how a variable will be measured.
	Outgroup	- A group to which one does not belong.
	Overlearning	- Continuing to practice material even after it is learned in order to increase retention.
	Partial reinforcement effect	- Phenomenon in which responses resist extinction because of partial or intermittent schedules of reinforcement.
	Peg word method	- Process of remembering a rhyme that associates numbers with words and words with the items to be remembered.
	Percentile score	- A score that indicates the percentage of people who achieved the same as or less than a particular score.
	Phoneme	- The smallest distinguishable unit in a language.
	Phonemic encoding	- A way of encoding verbal information that emphasizes how words sound.
	Placebo effect	- The effect on a subject of receiving a fake drug or treatment. Expectations of improvement contribute to placebo effects.
	Population	- The collection of individuals from which a sample is drawn.
	Positive correlation	- A relationship between two variables in which as one variable increases, the other does too.
	Positively skewed distribution	- A data distribution with a few very high scores.
	Positive punishment	- In operant conditioning, the presentation of a stimulus after a response so that the response will be less likely to occur.
	Positive reinforcement	- In operant conditioning, the presentation of a stimulus after a response so that the response will be more likely to occur.
	Positron emission tomography (PET)	- A method for studying the brain that involves injecting a radioactive substance, which collects in active brain areas.
	Primary auditory cortex	- In the temporal lobe of the cerebrum, the brain part involved in processing auditory information.
	Primary motor cortex	- In the frontal lobe of the cerebrum, the brain part involved in controlling muscle movement.
	Primary punisher	- In operant conditioning, a consequence that is naturally unpleasant.
	Primary reinforcer	- In operant conditioning, a consequence that is naturally satisfying.
	Primary visual cortex	- In the occipital lobe of the cerebrum, the brain part involved in handling visual information.
	Priming	- The retrieval of a particular memory by activating information associated with that memory.
	Principle of parsimony	- The principle of applying the simplest possible explanation to any set of observations; also called Occam’s razor.
	Procedural memory	- Memory of how to do things. Procedural memory is usually considered implicit.
	Projective test	- A test that requires psychologists to make judgments based on a subject’s responses to ambiguous stimuli. It is used to assess a psychological disorder.
	Psychological test	- An instrument that is used to collect information about personality traits, emotional states, aptitudes, interests, abilities, values, or behaviors.
	Psychometric approach	- A method of understanding intelligence that emphasizes people’s performance on standardized aptitude tests.
	Punishment	- The delivery of a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a response will occur.
	Random assignment	- A way of placing subjects into either an experimental or a control group such that subjects have an equal chance of being placed in either one group or the other.
	Range	- The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a set of scores.
	Ratio schedule	- A schedule in which reinforcement happens after a certain number of responses.
	Reaction time	- The amount of time a subject takes to respond to a stimulus.
	Recall	- The process of remembering without any external cues.
	Recognition	- The process of identifying learned information by using external cues.
	Reflex	- An innate response to a stimulus.
	Regression toward the mean	- The tendency for extreme states to move toward the average when assessed a second time.
	Rehearsal	- The process of practicing material in order to remember it.
	Reinforcement	- The delivery of a consequence that increases the likelihood that a response will occur.
	Reinforcement schedule	- The pattern in which reinforcement is given over time.
	Relearning	- A method for measuring forgetting and retention, which involves assessing the amount of time it takes to memorize information a second time.
	Reliability	- The ability of a test to produce the same result when administered at different times to the same group of people.
	Replicability	- The ability of research to repeatedly yield the same results when done by different researchers.
	Representativeness heuristic	- A rule-of-thumb strategy that estimates the probability of an event based on how typical that event is.
	Representative sample	- A sample that corresponds to the population from which it is drawn in terms of age, sex, and other qualities on the variables being studied.
	Response tendency	- A learned tendency to behave in a particular way.
	Retention	- The proportion of learned information that is retained or remembered.
	Retrieval	- The process of getting information out of memory.
	Retrieval cues	- Stimuli that help to get information out of memory.
	Retroactive interference	- Forgetting of old information because of newly learned information.
	Retrograde amnesia	- An inability to remember events that occurred before a brain injury or traumatic event.
	Reuptake	- The process by which neurotransmitter molecules return to presynaptic neurons.
	Reversibility	- The ability to reverse actions mentally.
	Rods	- Photoreceptor cells in the retina that allow people to see in dim light.
	Sample	- A collection of subjects, drawn from a population, that a researcher studies.
	Sampling bias	- A source of error that arises when the sample is not representative of the population that the researcher wants to study.
	Scalloped response pattern	- The phenomenon in which responses are slow in the beginning of the interval and faster just before reinforcement happens. It occurs as a result of a fixed-interval schedule.
	Schema	- A mental model of an object or event that includes knowledge about it as well as beliefs and expectations.
	Scientific method	- A standardized way of making observations, gathering data, forming theories, testing predictions, and interpreting results.
	Secondary process thinking	- Thinking that is logical and rational.
	Secondary punisher	- In operant conditioning, a consequence that is unpleasant because it has become associated with a primary punisher. It is also called a conditioned punisher.
	Secondary reinforcer	- In operant conditioning, a consequence that is satisfying because it has become associated with a primary reinforcer. It is also called a conditioned reinforcer.
	Selective attention	- The ability to focus on some pieces of sensory information and ignore others.
	Self-report data	- Information that people being surveyed give about themselves.
	Self-report inventory	- A paper-and-pen test that requires people to answer questions about their typical behavior.
	Semantic encoding	- A way of encoding verbal information that emphasizes the meaning of words.
	Semantic memory	- Remembering of general facts.
	Semantic slanting	- A way of making statements so that they will evoke specific emotional responses.
	Sensory memory	- A memory system that stores incoming sensory information for an instant.
	Serotonin	- A neurotransmitter involved in sleep, wakefulness, appetite, aggression, impulsivity, sensory perception, temperature regulation, pain suppression, and mood.
	Sex	- A biological distinction between males and females.
	Shaping	- In operant conditioning, a procedure in which reinforcement is used to guide a response closer and closer to a desired response.
	Short-term memory	- A memory system that stores a limited amount of information for a brief period.
	Single-blind	- A procedure in which subjects don’t know whether they are in an experimental or control group.
	Skinner box	- A device used to study operant conditioning.
	Social desirability bias	- The tendency of some people to describe themselves in socially approved ways.
	Soma	- The central area of a neuron; also called the cell body.
	Sound waves	- Changes in pressure generated by vibrating molecules.
	Source amnesia	- Inaccurate recall of the origin of information in memory. It is also called source misattribution or source monitoring error.
	Spontaneous recovery	- In classical conditioning, the reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response.
	Standard deviation	- A statistic that indicates the degree to which scores vary around the mean of a distribution.
	Standardized tests	- Tests with uniform procedures for administration and scoring.
	Standardization	- The use of uniform procedures when administering and scoring tests.
	Standardization sample	- A large group of people that is representative of the entire population of potential test takers.
	States	- Temporary behaviors or feelings.
	Statistical significance	- The likelihood that a result was not due to chance.
	Statistics	- The analysis and interpretation of numerical data.
	Stimulants	- Drugs that stimulate the central nervous system.
	Stimulus discrimination	- In classical conditioning, the tendency not to have a conditioned response to a new stimulus that’s similar to the original conditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, it’s the tendency for a response to happen only when a particular stimulus is present.
	Stimulus generalization	- In classical conditioning, the tendency to respond to a new stimulus as if it’s the original conditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, it’s the tendency to respond to a new stimulus as if it’s the original discriminative stimulus.
	Storage	- The process of maintaining information in memory.
	Structural encoding	- A way of encoding verbal information that emphasizes how words look.
	Subject	- An individual person or animal that a researcher studies.
	Subject bias	- Bias that results from the subject’s expectations or the subject’s changing of his or her behavior.
	Survey	- A method of getting information about a specific behavior, experience, or event by means of interviews or questionnaires, using several participants.
	Symbol	- A sound, gesture, or written character that represents an object, action, event, or idea.
	Syntax	- A system of rules that governs how words can be meaningfully arranged to form phrases and sentences.
	Temperament	- Innate personality features or dispositions.
	Test-retest reliability	- The ability of a test to produce the same results when given to the same group of people at different times.
	Theory	- An explanation that organizes separate pieces of information in a coherent way.
	Theta waves	- The type of brain waves present when a person is lightly asleep.
	Trial and error	- Trying out different solutions until one works.
	Twin studies	- Studies in which researchers examine trait similarities between identical and fraternal twin pairs to figure out whether that trait might be inherited.
	Two-factor theory	- The idea that people’s experience of emotion depends on two factors: physiological arousal and the cognitive interpretation of that arousal. When people perceive physiological symptoms of arousal, they look for an environmental explanation of this arousal.
	Unconditioned response	- A naturally occurring response that happens without previous conditioning.
	Unconditioned stimulus	- A stimulus that evokes an innate response.
	Validity	- The ability of a test to measure the characteristic it is supposed to measure.
	Values	- Perceptions of what is important in life.
	Variable	- An event, characteristic, behavior, or condition that researchers measure and study.
	Variable-interval schedule	- A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement happens after a particular average amount of time.
	Variable-ratio schedule	- A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement happens after a particular average number of responses.
	Wavelength	- The distance between the peaks of waves.
	Working memory	- An active memory system that holds information while it’s processed or examined.

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