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277 Cards in this Set
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Microorganisms
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Minute living things too small to be seen with naked eye.
Groups include: Fungi (yeasts and molds), Protozoans (amoeba), Microscopic algae, Viruses and Bacteria In nature, may exist as a single cell that floats, swims independently in liquid, or may attach itself to each other and/or some usually solid surface. |
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Microbes
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Same as Microorganisms.
Part of the food chain. Break down wastes, recycle important elements, some carry out photosynthesis, vitamin synthesis (some B's and K), Industrial uses. Most are beneficial. They recycle vital elements: think Nitrogen cycle, Carbon cycle, and Oxygen cycle. Sewage treament. Used for bioremediation. Insect/Pest contrtol (Bt toxin) |
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Genus
(Plural: genera) |
The first name of an organism and is typically the large group name (i.e. homo)
ALWAYS CAPITALIZED |
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Species
aka "Specific Epithet" |
The second name of an organism - more exact definition (i.e. sapiens, habilis, etc). NOT capitalized.
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Bacteria
(sing. bacterium) |
Relatively simple, single-celled (unicellular) organisms. Genetic material is NOT enclosed in a nuclear membrane. PROKARYOTIC
*Bacteria send out messages and can coordinate efforts! Most bacteria are 0.2 to 2 um |
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Prokaryote
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(Pre-Nucleus) A cell whose genetic material is not enclosed in a nuclear envelope (no cell nucleus). BACTERIA and Archaea
Do not have genetic material enclosed inside a membrane. It is typically one circuluar chromosome. Do not have membrane bound organelles Do not have DNA associated with histone proteins (special chromosomal proteins found in eukaryotes) Usually have cell walls containing PEPTIDOGLYCAN Divide by BINARY FISSION Most bacteria are 0.2 to 2.o micrometer in diam and 2 to 8 micrometers in length. Red blood cells are usually 7.0 micrometers in diameter Basic Shapes: Round or spherical (coccus, plural = cocci) Rod shaped (bacillus, plural - bacilli) Coccobaccili (bacilli which look like cocci)) Spiral (comma shaped, spiral shaped, or corkscrew shaped) Pleomorphic (varies in shape) Star shaped and square shaped bacteria have recently been discovered. |
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Name the various shapes of Bacteria:
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Bacillus (rodlike), Coccus (spherical or ovoid), Spiral (corkscrew or curved), Ocassionally star and square shaped too.
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Do Bacteria have cell walls?
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Yes. This cell was is comprised of a carb and protein called "peptidoglycan"
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How do Bacteria generally reproduce?
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By dividing into two equal cells; this process is called binary fission
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What is binary fission?
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The process of dividing into two equal cells.
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Archae (pron: arkeeuh)
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Like bacteria, they are PROKARYOTIC cells, but IF they have a cell wall, they lack peptidoglycan. Often found in extreme environments such as the Dead Sea or geothermal vents (halophiles = salt loving, and thermophiles =- heat loving)
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Fungi
(Sing: fungus) |
EUKARYOTES. Think mushrooms and yeast and molds. Cannot carry out photosynthesis. Fungi can reproduce sexually or asexually.
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Eukaryotes
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True nucleus. cells who have a distinct nucleus containing the cell's genetic material (DNA) within a nuclear membrane.
This includes: Fungi, Protozoans, Algae, People/Animals |
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Protozoa
(sing. Protozoan) |
Unicellular eukaryotic microbes that move by pseudopods, flagella, or cilia. Amoebas are protozoans. Can reproduce sexually or asexually.
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Algae
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Photosynthetic Eukaryotes. Cell walls are composed (usually) of cellulose.
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Virus
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Very different from other microbial groups. It is in doubt wether or not they are even alive. They are acellular. They are simple, having only a core of DNA or RNA. Not "living" until they have a host.
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What microorganisms are Eukaryotic?
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Protozoa, Fungi, Algae, and multicellular animal parasites,i.e. "helminths"
Even humans!bye |
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Helminths
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worms
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Name some common commerical uses for bacteria:
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Food (cheese, bread, yogurt, vinegar.
Alcoholic Beverages Antibiotics Inducstrial chemicals (acetone, glycerin, etc.) Enzymes (digestive aids, drain cleaners, cellulose, etc) |
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There are more "(blank)" in your body that there are human cells in your body
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Microbes!
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What did Joseph Lister do?
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One of the 1st to use an agent to control microbial growth. Used carbolic acid to kill bacteria harmful to patient.
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Carbolic acid
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Phenol. Creozote. It's the stuff they coat and preserve wood, such as telephone poles and railroad ties with.
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What did Robert Koch develop?
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A set of rules to prove a particular microbe causes a particular disease. Called "Koch's Postulates"
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Roberth Koch and Louis Pasteur. How did they get along
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Koch was a German nationalist and Pasteur, a Frenchman. They were contemporaries who didn't get along.
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Who was Edward Jenner and what did he do?
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English countnry physician who discovered the concept (and success) of the first vaccinations. A Milkmaid named Sarah Nelms, who had cowpox (vaccinia) on her hands, suggested it kept her safe/immune to the more virulant small pox (variola). Discovered "cross-reactive immunity"
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Vaccinia
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Cowpox. This is where the word "vaccination" is derived.
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Variola
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Small Pox
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Louis Pasteur - who is he and what did he do?
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He discovered the process now called Pasteurization to "control" the growth (not completely kill) of microbes. Originally inventened Pasteurization process for wine. THEN: he wnet on to discover a method to produce "other" vaccines. Found a vaccination for Chicken Cholera. His "guess of genius" led to the discovery of attenuation.
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Attentuation
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the process whereby a pathogentic micrboe loses its ability to cause disease.
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Famous quote by Louis Pasteur:
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"Chance favors the prepared mind".
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Chemotherapy
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The treatment of of any disease by use of chemicals (techinally, taking an aspirin is chemotherapy).
Two types: Synthetics and antiobiotics |
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Synthetic drugs
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Chemotherapy. They are made from chemicals in a laboratory.
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Antibiotics
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Chemotherapy. (chemotherapeutics) Made by microbes naturally.!
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Compound 606
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Salversan (derived from arsenic). Created by Paul Ehrlich. Denote the 606th attempt at creating an arsenic derived microbe killer. The first synthetic drug, used to successfully treat syphillis.
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Paul Ehrlich
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Chemist who successfully synthesize first drug, Salversan (Compound 606). His "gift of character" was? (dogged persistence?) Died a broken man.
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Quinine
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Derived from tree bark to successfully treat malaria.
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Sulfa drugs
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In the 1930, work with dyes led to the discovery of sulfa drugs. They are a derivative of clothing dyes.
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Alexander Fleming
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Discovered on accident, Penecillin. "this means something". Found that germs around this moldlike growth were dead. Replaced sulfa drugs in the 1940's (WWII).
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Antibiotics - Dr. Andersons view
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They are a dead end street. What we must work on next are ways to ramp up the human immune system so we don't get sick in the 1st place.
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How was the 1st vaccination performed?
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Edward Jenner dipped a needle in milkmaid (Sarh Nelms') cowpox lesion and then scratched the arm of child to "vaccinate" the child against smallpox.
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Cross Reactive Immunity
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When the innoculation of one virus give protection against another.
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Bacteriology
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The study of bacteria. Currently is going through a "golden age of classification"
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Mycology
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The study of fungi (Alexander Fleming = penecillin). Currently is going through a "golden age of classification"
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Parasitology
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Study of protozoa and parasitic worms. It is theorized that the caduceus may have been designed after the procedure for removing parasitic guinea worms. Currently is going through a "golden age of classification"
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Genomics
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The study of all of an organisms genes. THis has allowed scientists to classify bacteria, fungi and protozoa according to their relationships with other bacteria, fungi and protozoa
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Panspermia
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the hypothesis that life exists throughout the Universe, distributed by meteoroids, asteroids, and planetoids.
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Virology
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The study of viruses, which typically are very small: and area different form of "life"
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Immunology
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The study of the immune response to foreign substances.
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Recombinant DNA Technology
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A method by which genetic material from different organisms can be recombined.. An example of this would be use in biowarfare. A more innocuous example would be the usue of bacteria to create insulin.
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BT corn
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Genetically modified corn that has been altered to produce its own BT (Bacillus thuringiensis)
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Bacillus thurengiensis
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Bt toxin. A toxic crystal that damages the gut of many insect pests.
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Spirulina
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Algae. Good source of protein.
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What are microbes used for?
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Nitrogen cycle, Carbon cycle, Oxygen cycle, sewage treatment, bioremediation (think Exxon Valdez), Insect control (Bt toxin),
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Biotechnology
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The used of microorganisms (and other living systems) to assist in the production of commerically useful products. - Genetic engineering (recombinant DNA) and gene therapy, Single-cell protein (SCP) as a food source for humans and animals.
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What is SCP?
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Single-cell protein. (think spirulina)
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Normal Flora, aka...
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Normal Microbiota. These live in our body under normal circumstances.Almost ALL of your cells or prokaryotic cells..
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Bioweapons - black death
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The Soviet's came up with this. Similar to Bubonic Plague. No cure.
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Homeostasis
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The balance maintained between the body's defenses and potentially disease causing microbes.
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What is the most important factor in maintaining balance (homeostasis)?
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The relative "resistance" or immunity of the host. The most important deterrent in the acquisition and recovery from infectious disease is the host immune system.
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Biofilm
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A complex aggregation of microbes. What is created when the mode or behavior of a microorganism clings to others and/or solid surfaces. Think "stuff on your teeth)..
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How are biofilms beneficial?
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They protect your mucous membranes from harmful microbes.
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How are biofilms harmful?
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Pathogens can grown on medical implants (catheter's, etc.)
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Why are infection diseases increasing?
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Evolutionary changes, Greater population density, Mass production of tainted food, social changes, rapid travel, environmental change
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Emerging infectious diseases
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Ebola hemmoragic fever, new strains of influenza, bovine spongiform enchephalopathy (mad cow diseas), etc.
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Modern Compound Microscope parts:
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Know Light source, condensor, specimen holder, objective lenses, eye piece lense.
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Condensor
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Focus light on the stage of a microscope.
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Lenses on microscope
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4 power, 10 power, 40 power (high-dry), 100 power (Oil immersion)
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Occular lense
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Eye piece of microscope. Power of maginification is 10.
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Gamma Globulin Shots
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Shots given to boost immunity, esp. after transplants.
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Campylobacter
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microbe that causes 14% of all food poisoning cases.
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Salmonella
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microbe thath causes 10% of all food poisoning cases.
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Refracted Index
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The relative velocity at which light passes through specimen or material.
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Immersion Oil
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Has the same refractive propertiese as glass. Doesn't scatter or bend light. Glass actually disappears in immersion oil. For the test: "Reduces scattering or refraction of light for that more light enter the apperature of the objective lense, whereby you get a brighter and clearer image.
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Where does the light on microscope go through?
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It comes up through the condenser.
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Kilometer (km)
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Equal to .62 miles
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Anton van Leeuwenhoek
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A lense maker by trade, he was the first to actually view live microorganisms - improved upon Robert Hooke's working of making microscopes. He used a simple single lense to examine actual microscope. Ppl were suprised to find out there were microbes in water. He published his work.
Hi microscope was able to magnify 300 times! |
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Robert Hooke
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First to make a microscope using a crude multiple-lense. He examined cork. Coined the term "cells" because the corks cells reminded him of a Monk's tiny room.
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Francesco Redi
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Did the experiment in an attempt to disprove spontaneous generation on jars of rotting meat. (covered them with cheesecloth). No flies were created.
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John Needham
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Came after Redi. Make the accend of "transfer contamination", therefore even his boiled broths still had microorganisms. Claimed spontaneous generation.
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Lazzaro Spallanzani
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Suggested that microorganisms from the air contaminated Needham's experiments. Showed that boiled liquid that remained covered in its container stayed free of microorganisms. Needham responded with "vital force" arguement
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Rudolph Virchow
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Claimed Biogenesis - living cells only arise from pre-existitng living cells
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Louis Pasteur
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In 1861 - Disproved theory of spontaneous generation (goose neck bottle experiment.
Pasteurization (1st) invented to prevent spoilage of wine by gentle heating (doesn't kill ALL microbes) Vaccination (2nd) improved on process. Discovered that fermentation by yeast can produce alcohol in the ABSENCE of air. In the presence of air, bacteria turned the alcohol to acetic acid (vinegar) Discovered the cause of silkworm disease was a protozoan and developed method for recognizignafflicted silkworm moths |
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Acetic Acid
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Vinegar
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Panspermia
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The idea that life exists everywhere.
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Microbial spores
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In asteroids, can last 30 million years.
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Golden Age of Microbiology
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1857-1914
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Meteorite ALH845001
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Microbe w/ tubelike structure found in meteorite.
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Meter
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Equal 1.09 yards
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Millimeter
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is 1/1000 of a meter and equals 0.039 inches
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Micrometer (um)
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equals 1/1,000,000 of a meter (or 10 to the -6)
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Nanometer (nm)
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Equals 10 to the -9 meters
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List the 5 main parts of a compound microscope
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Illuminator (light source)
Condenser Specimin holder (and specimen) Objective Lense Ocular Lens (eyepiece) |
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Illuminator
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Light source of a microscope
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Condenser
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Focus the light on a microscope
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Specimen Holder
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Holds the specimen
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Objective Lense
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there are 3 -4 of these:
(sometimes a 4x) low power (10x) High dry (40X) Oil Immersion (100x) |
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Occular Lens
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eyepiece of microscope. Magnifies by 10x
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Magnification
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This is equal to the occular lens times the objective lens in use (10 x 10 or 40 or 100).
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Resolution
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The ability of the lenses of a microscope to distinguish between two separate points
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Refractive Index
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The relative velocity at which light passes through a specimen.
Staining bacteria changes their refractive index relative to the surrounding material, which helps them to be more easily seen. |
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Immersion Oil
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Placed on top of the specimen, helps to reduce undesired refraction (light scattering) once the light passes through the speciment becasue it has the SAME refractive index as glass.
TEST* Reduces scattering or refraction of ight so that more light passes into the aperature of the objective lense so that you get a brighter and clearer image. |
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Brightfield Microscope
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The kind of microscope that lights from underneath (the kind we use in lab). Max of 1000x magnification)
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Darkfield Microscope
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Some bacteria don't show up well under a brightfield. A darkfield is used to examine living microbes in suspension. A special condenser directs light so that it hits the specimen only from the sides. Works light dust in sunlight. The specimen appears light against a dark background
TEST: Used to diagnose SYPHILLIS (corkscrew shaped) |
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Phase-Contrast Microscope
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Gives really nice detail. Can also be used for observing living organisms. It permits detailed examination of internal structures. A special condenser and diffraction (phase) plate in the objective lense act to increase subtle differences in the light after it passes through the specimen.
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Differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy
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This is similar to phase-contrast microscopy in that it accentuates differences in refractive indexes, but it uses two beams of light and prisms thereby adding contrasting colors to view
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Fluorescent microscopes
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Similar to brightfield, but uses UV light. Specimen must be tagged with fluorescent substance (fluorochrome). This fluorochrome dye can be attached to specific antibodies, which can be used to label specific microbes.
TEST: often used to detect TUBERCULOSIS. Provides a rapid diagnostic for many microbes (done in minutes) Don't forget to wear special goggles |
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Confocal Microscopy
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Similar to fluorescent microscopy, specimens are stained with fluorochromes so they emit light, but this is scanned in a fine cross-sectional slice w/ a short-wavelength (blue) light.
Can only image cell in detail to a depth of less than 100um. Computer then makes 3d image whicih can give up to 40% better resolution than other microscopes. |
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Two-photon microscopy
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Also stained w/ fluorochrome. Uses long-wavelength (red) light and so two photons, instead of one, are needed to excite the fluorochrome to emit light. Imaging of live cells up to mm deep. Can track activity of living cells in real time.
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Scanning Acoustic Microscopy (SAM)
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This method can resolve objects as small as 1 micrometer, send sound waves through a specimen. Can be used to study living cells attached to another surface.
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Syphillis
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Treponema pallidum - GRAM NEG. Shape: spirochette. Best diagnose on a darkfield microscope.
aka. The Pox. |
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Tuberculosis
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Mycobacterium tuberculosis. ACID FAST. Cell walll has large amounts of lipids. Can survive weeks in dried sputum. Commonly acquired through inhilation.
Shape: Slender rod and an obligate aerobe. |
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Electron Microscopy
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USED TO SEE VIRUSES. Uses magnets to see. There are two types of electron microscopes: Transmission Electrorn Microscope and a Scanning Elecron Microscope
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Transmission Electron Microscope
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1 of 2 kinds of elecron microscopes. Can magnify object 10,000 - 100,000 times. Only provides 2D view
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Scanning Electron Microscope
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Can magnify 1,000 - 10,000 times. Provides a 3D view
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Scanned-probe microscopy
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Can view molecules and DNA!
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Depression slide
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Has a concavity for place liquid specimens. the drop "hangs" in the concavity.
Aka: hanging drop slide |
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Heat fixing
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the process of passing a slide carefully through heat to kill AND fix bacteria to a slide w/ out destroying its structure.
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Cryptococcus neoformans
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TEST! Human pathogen that loves to grow in the brain. Often found in patients who have HIV. They are tought buggers because they're ENCAPSULATED. Detected easily by using a Gram Stain (differential stain)
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Negative stain
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Stains the background, not the microbe. Example: India ink.
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Simple Stain
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One-color dye. Employs a single stain and is used to visualize cell shape and arrangement ony.
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Gram stain
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The MOST common differential stain technique that has 4 main steps.
1. Crystal Violet (blue primary stain) 2. Gram's Iodine (a mordant for the crystal violet) 3. Alcohol or acetone alcohol (decolorizing agent). MOST IMPORTANT STEP. 4. Safranin (red counterstain) - works on colorless bacteria. GRAM POS bacteria will be BLUE (peptidoglycan layer) - bacteria and fungi GRAM NEG bacteria will be RED (thick lipid/waxy outer layer) - all human cells |
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Mordant
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fixative (gram's iodine)
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Acid-Fast stain
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Used to stain Mycobacterium (causitive agent of tuberculosis and leprosy). Red dye is driven in w/ heat. T
1. Carbolfuchsin (red dye) 2. Heat 3. Wash 4. Decolorize with ACID Alcohol 5. Methylene Blue (blue counterstain) Results: red bacteria are acid-fast, blue-bacteria are non-acid fast. All human cells are non-acid fast! (blue) |
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Special stains
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Spores are very stain reistant, so there are special dyes for this.
Special dyes for flagella. |
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How are Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes differentiated?
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On the basis of the structure of their cell walls, membranes, and internal components.
Prokaryotes - pre-nucleus Eukaryotes - true nucleus |
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What are the basic shapes of bacteria
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Round (coccus)
Rods (Bacillus) Coccobacilllus (oval or bacillus parrading as coccus) Spiral (spirochette - comma shaped, spiral shaped, or corkscrew shaped) Pleomorphic (varies in shape) even star and square |
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Cocci
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(singular: coccus).
Basic arrangements: Single Diplococci (pairs) Streptococci (chains) Tetrads (packet of four) Sarcinae (packets of eight) Staphylococci (irregular clusters) |
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Bacilli
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(singular: bacillus)
Basic arrangements: Single Diplobacilli (pairs) Streptobacilli (chains) Coccobacilli (resemble cocci) |
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Glycocalyx
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Gelatinous polymer (usually a polysaccharide) that surrounds some bacterial cells and can contribute to biofilms
ANTIPHAGOCYTIC |
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Capsule
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a form of glycocalyx, meaning it is firmly (rather than loosely) attached to the bacteria.
A capsule can protect a bacteria from being eaten (phagocytized) by a host's defensive cells. Identificatgion of capsule material can be useful in identifying disease causing bacteria. *Most important virulant factor in bacteria is the capsule |
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Phagocytized
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Eaten by phagocytes (the body's immune cells)
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Adhesions
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Method attaching to hosts
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Slime layer
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A loose attachment form of glycocalyx
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Flagella
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(sing. flagellum). Used by bacteria for propulsion. Useful in helping to create UTI's
Different arrangements: Monotrichous (single) Amphitrichous (multiple at both ends) Lophotrichous (multiple at one end) think "tuft" Peritichous (all over) |
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Monotrichous
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A singular flagellum
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Amphitrichous
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Multiple flagella attached at both ends of a microorganism.
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Lophotrichous
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Multiple flagella, but attached at only one end of a microorganism. Think of it as a tuft
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Peritrichous
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Flagella that are arranged ALL over a microorganism
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Taxis
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Refers to the movement of a microbe toward or away from a particular stimulus (i.e. chemicals, light, etc.)
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Chemotaxis
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movement based upon reaction to chemicals, either away or towards
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Tell me about an obtuse triangle.
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An obtuse triangle is a triangle which contains one obtuse angle greater than 90 degrees.
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Axial filaments
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The means by which spirochete move (i.e. syphillis (Treponema pallidum). THey are bundles of fibrils that arise at the end of the cell beneath an outer sheath and spiral around the cell.
The are a filament, anchored at one end of a cell and have a structure similar to flagella. The rotation of the filament produces a movement of the outer sheat thtat propels the spirochetes in a spiral motion. |
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Fimbriae
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Shorter, straighter, and thinner than flagella.
NOT used for motiility but rather for attachement for surfaces (i.e. gonorrhea) |
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Pili
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Longer than fimbriae and usually only 1-2 are found per cell. Their function is sexual reproduction (transfer of genetic material). (sex pili)
This function happens alot in our G.I. tract, particularly in our large intestines. CAN be used to twitch or gliding motility |
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Proteas
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(peritrichous) Found out it's movement was random as that of a wind up toy.
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Cell wall
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Gives bacteria their distinctive shapes
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What is the function of a cell wall?
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It helps support the underlying plasma membrane in varying environmental solutions, gives the cells it characteristic shape, and maybe contribute to a microbe's ability to cause disease.
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What is the basic composition of a cell wall?
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Composed of a macromolecular network of peptidoglycan (very large molecule, woven together like a basket)
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Specifically, what is the composition of a GRAM POS cell wall?
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In addition to peptidoglycan, MAY also contain "teichoic acids" (which can be useful in identification). Will retain a crystal violet stain
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Specifially, what is the composition of a GRAM NEG cell wall?
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In addititon to peptidoglycan, they have a lipopolysaccharide-phospholipid-lipoprotein layer which surrounds the peptidoglycan layer. Acts as a tough to beat barrier. Will retain the red (acid) stain.
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Teichoic acid
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A polysaccharide found in GRAM POS cell walls.
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Lipopolysaccharide
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Part of a GRAM NEG celll wall that provides strong protection by preventing phagocytosis. TOXIC TO HUMANS!
**the lipid portion of the lipopolysaccharide is called "lipid A" or "endotoxin". |
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What is Endotoxin?
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ANTIPHAGOCYTIC. The "Lipid A" portion of lipopolysaccharide - a portion of the components in a GRAM NEG cell wall. NOT DESTROYED BY HEAT
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What symptoms are caused by Lipid A? (Endotoxin)
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Fever, dilation of blood vessels (drops BP), shock and coagulation abnormalities in humans. NOT DESTROYED BY HEAT
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Which prokaryote has little or no cell walls? (atypical)
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Mycoplasma (pneumonia)
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Mucoplasma pneumonia
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An atypical, pleomorphic microbe that has NO CELL WALL.
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Antiphagocytic
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Resistant to attack from phagocytes.
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What things are antiphagocytic?
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glycocalyx, Lipid A (endotoxin), Capsules, polysaccharides, slime layer and lipopolysaccharide
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Hypotension
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Abnormally reduced blood pressure.
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Toxic shock
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Caused by GRAM NEG bacteria (Lipid A or endotoxin)
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What is the cause of walking pneumonia in young adults?
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Mycoplasma pneumonia (penecillin doesn't work)
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Mycobacteria
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ACID FAST STAIN. High concentrations (60%) or a water-repellling waxy lipid (mycolic acid) in their cell wall that resists the uptake of dyes. IF they stain at all, the stain GRAM POS
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Mycolic acid
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In the cell walls of mycobacteria. Forms a layer outside of a thin layer of peptidoglycan
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How does and acid fast stain work?
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With the help of carbolfushsin - heating enhances penetration of the stain. This allows the carbolfuchsin to penetrate the cell wall and to bind to the cytoplasm, and resists removal by washing with acid-alcohol
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Lysozyme
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Means: "to burst" (lyse)Damages cell walls by catalyzation and "bursting".
Dissolves peptidoglycan. Abundant in tears, saliva, human milk, mucus, and egg whites. |
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What are the effects of lysozyme?
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GRAM POS are most susceptible and they typically burst (lyse). In a favorable environment, they may form protoplasts, which have no cell wall
GRAM NEG are less susceptible and SOME of the cell wall material remains (spheroplasts). |
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Protoplasts
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Formed by GRAM POS bacteria. Removal of cell wall.
Will break down in a DILUTE solution. Can only survive in favorable environements (and could still cause disease) |
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Spheroplasts
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Formed by GRAM NEG bacteria. Damages cell wall, resulting in a spherical cell.
Can only survive in a favorable enrvironment (and could still cause disease) |
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Penicillin
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Discovered by Alexander Fleming - Penicilling interferes with the synthesis of peptidoglycan and weakens the cell wall. However, the bacteria MUST be in a state of growtth, or penicllin will not work.
Effective on GRAM POS cells |
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Osmotic cell lysis
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the rupture of the plasma membrane resulting from movement of water INTO the cell.
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Plasma (cytoplasmic) membrane
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a phospholipid bilayer forming the innermost part of the cell wall of bacteria. Both Prokaryotic AND Eukaryotic cells have them.
It is SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE. Has protein transporters which either catalyze or transport materials across the bilayer. Many of the proteins and some of the lipids on the outer surface of the plasma membrane have carbohydrates attached, which are referred to as "glycoproteins" or "glycolipids". These help to protect and lubricate the cell and are involved in cell-to-cell interactions. |
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What are the functions of the Plasma membrane?
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It is selectively permeable. Small molecules, such as water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and some simple sugars, usually pass through easily. Some transport is regulated by carrier proteins. Some antibiotics and antibacterial agents kill bacteria by attacking the plasma membrane.
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Simple diffusion
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Caused by the ramdom molecular motion of water. It is the movement of molecules or ions from and area of high concentration to an area of low concentration (Brownian motion)
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Brownian motion
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The normal "back and forth" vibration of molecules.
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Facilitated Diffusion
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This happens when transporter proteins (permeases) transport material from a HIGH concentration to an area of LOW concentration.
Does not require energy (ATP)! think of the Kmart example...hoards of shoppers entering in through the door, with no effort from the store |
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Osmosis
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The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane (by simple diffusion or through protein channels called aquaporings) from and area of HIGH water concentration to and area of LOW water concentration.
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What does the addition of salt (NaCl) to water do?
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it decreases water concentratoin by displacement. Salt displaces water molecules and dissolves into sodium and chloride.
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Osmotic pressure
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The pressure needed to stop the flow of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
*driven by the number of solutes |
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Isotonic solution
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(iso - mean "equal"). It is a solutioni osmotically balanced with the cell. It has the same concentration of solids (solutes) and water (solvent) as that seen in the cell.
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Formula for isotonic solution
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.85g of salt mixed with 100 mls of water.
(there are 1000 mls in 1 liter of liquid) |
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How many ml's in 1 liter of liquid
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1000 mls
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Solute
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Solid (i.e. salt, etc)
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Solvent
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Water
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Biconcave
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The shape of normal red blood cells (which have no nucleus). They loose their nucleus in the formation process in the bones.
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Hypotonic solution
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Hype = under (think Hypothyroid = get fat). It refers to the amount of dissolved solids. This is a DILUTE solution low in solids and high in water (solvent).
Example: Pure water. In this solution, humans cells will swell and burst (osmotic lysis) |
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What happens to Red blood cellls in a hypotonic solution?
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They experience Hemolysis (and burst!)
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Hemolysis
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The bursting of a red blood cell
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What happens to bacteria in a Hypotonic solution?
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they experience plasmoptysis (they will eventually experience lysis, but not for quite a while).
Cells take IN water. |
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Plasmoptysis
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the bursting forth of protoplasm from a cell through rupture of the cell wall
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Hypertonic Solution
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Anything greater than .85% saline. It refers to the amount of dissolved solids. HIGH in solids, LOW in water. Cells give up their water. Cells will shrink and in bacteria, the plasma membrane will shrink, a process called plasmolysis).
Human cells "crenate" in this solution |
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Crenation
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Shrinkage of cell
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Plasmolysis
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Shrinkage of plasma membrane (contracts away from the cell wall). This will stop the bacteria from growing but it does NOT die, at least not immediately.
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Active Transport (ATP)
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ATP (which is energy). Transporter proteins transport material from LOW concentration to an area of HIGH concentration (usually to inside the cell). THis is essentially the REVERSE of facilitated diffusion.
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Group translocation
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Similar to ATP but a material, such as glucose, is CHANGED during transport, so for example, glucose changes to phosphorylated glucose. The internal membrane of the bacterium is impermeable to this changed glucose so it cannot escape. ALSO REQUIRES ENERGY.
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Cytoplasm
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The semisolid gelatinous goo inside cell wall. This essentially includes everything inside the plasma membrane. This is where the main chemical reactions occur. It is thick, aqueous, semitransparent and elastic. The nuclear area (nucleoid) contains a long circuluar molecule of DNA. BACTERIAL CHROMOSOME IS ONE LARGE CIRCLE made of two strands. Cytoplasm also contains plasmids, ribosomes, cytoskeleton and MAY include "metachromatic granules"
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Plasmids
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Small circles of DNA which are extrachromosomal. This is where bacteria keep DNA they don't need every day, but for special circumstances, such as anti-bacterial resistance, etc.
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Designer Jean: Made by Microbes
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Microbiology is being used to minimize toxic wastes and the costs assoc. w/ treating toxic wastes. Microbes provide abundant, renewable raw materials
Stone Washing: Enzymes, from cellulases, from Trichoderma fungus are used to digest some of the celluulose in cotton, making "softer" denim. Operates as a safe temperature and pH. They (enzymes) are proteins, so the degrade easily for removal from wastewater. Fabric: Bacteria can produce cotton and polyester w/ less environmental impact than growing crops. Gluconacetobacter xylinus makes cellulose by attaching glucose units to simple chains on the outer membrane of the bacterial cell wall. The cellulose microfibrils are extruded through pores in the outer membrane, and bundles of microfibrils then twist into ribbons. Bleaching: Peroxide (safer than bleach) is now created from a cloned mushroom peroxidase gene in yeast and is grown in washing machine conditions. Indigo: Typical indigo produce w/ chemical creates a waste product that explodes when it comes in contact with air.. Bacterial by-product: indole. This is now converted to indigo (comes from a soil bacterium). This soil bacterium is Pseudomonas putida. They place this indole into Escherichia coli bacteriak, which then turn blue. Plastics: Over 25 bacteria make PHA (polyhydroxyalkanoate) inclusing granules as a food reserve. PHA's are similar to common plastics. Could provide a biodegradable alternative to conventional plastic. |
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What is Phosphorylation?
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It's what happens to a molecule that gets changed during the transport process into a cell. This change prevents the changed molecule from leaving. REQUIRES ENERGY
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What are Plasmids?
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Contained within cytomplasm, plasmids are extrachromosomal circle of DNA where bacteria keep DNA they don't need on a regular basis. R-Factor - genes for antibiotic resistance.
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R-Factor
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Genes withing a plasmid that are the genes for antibiotic resistance.
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Ribosomes
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Contained within cytoplasm, ribosomes are composed to two subunits and are small protein factories (like the 2 heads of a tape player) Prokaryotic ribosomes are different than Eukaryotic ribosomes.
All ribosomes contain rRNA (ribosomal RNA) |
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Cytoskeleton
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"Scaffolding". Consists of microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules that provide support and movement for EUKARYOTIC cytoplasm.
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Inclusions
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Sometimes included in the cytoplasm. May be Metachromatic granules, Polysaccharide granules, Lipid inclusions, Sulfur granules, Iron, oxide, etc.
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Metachromatic granules
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Sometimes included in the cytosplams of PROKARYOTIC cells. It is essentially stored phosphate.
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What is Andy's Law?
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Equal use of Power. (Knowledge = Power)
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Endospores
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Formed by GRAM POSITIVE bacteria - Clostridium (botulism) and Bacillus (anthracis )= Anthrax.
And endospore is a highly durable dehydrated body with a thick wall which are formed inside the bacterial cell. Spores are resistant to killing, may survive boiling water for 19 hours and may remain dormant for 30-300 million years. *ALL BACILLI ARE ENDOSPORE FORMERS! |
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Bacillus anthracis
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ANTHRAX. The "sheep" disease. Think "baaa!"
Infections of the skin are characterized by black lesions. There is a 30-40% death rate. If inhaled or ingested, practically 100% fatal. Must be on antibiotics BEFORE infection or within hours of exposure, or it's already too late. In WWII, Winston Churchill convinced the U.S. to manufacture this as a bioweapon against the Germans. Used it on an island in Scotland. Killed EVERYTHING. Was uninhabitable for 60-70 years. |
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What is contained within a Prokaryotic cell?
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Cytoplasm, Plasmids, Ribosomes, a "scaffolding" Cytoskeleton, and sometimes, inclusions. Some Prokaryotics (and ALL Bacillus) also make endospores (i.e. Bacillus
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What is contained within a Eukaryotic cell?
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similar to Prokaryotes. Contain plasma. IN addition to diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, and active transport, eukaryotes use "endocytosis".
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Human Cells - What is their outer surface made of?
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Phospholipid bilayer
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cryptococcus neoformans
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is an encapsulated yeast that can live in both plants and animals. (likes to grow in the brains of HIV positive people. GRAM POSITIVE
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Plasma
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In some Eukaryotes, this IS the external covering of the cell
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Endocytosis
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The process by which a material is moved into a Eukaryotic cell. Two forms: Phagocytosis and Pinocytosis
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Phagocytosis
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The process by which Eukaryotic cells ingest solid materials - i.e. this is what white blood cells do - they ingest foreign organisms.
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Pinocytosis
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The process by which Eukaryotic cells bring in fluids (and whatever substance is dissolved in the fluids (can be viruses!!) by invagination of the cell membrane.
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What else is Lamuvidine AKA? What class of drug is it?
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Lamivudine or 3TC is an NRTI
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What is in the cytoplasm of a Eukaryote?
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This includes everything inside the cell membrane and external to the nucleus. Cyotosol is the liquid portion of the cytoplasm.. Inside the cytoplasm is a cytoskeleton made up of tiny rods and cylinders.
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How does the cytoskeleton of a Eukaryote function?
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It functions to provide support and movement for the cell's organelles and the cells themselves (amoeboid motion or "cytoplasmic streaming). Think of a twitching beachball.
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Cytoplasmic streaming
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the term for the movement of a Eukaryotic cell via use of the cytoskeleton
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Organelles
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Organelles include the nucleus, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, vacuoles, mitochondria, chloroplasts, peroxisomes and centrosomes of EUKARYOTIC CELLS.
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Nucleus
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Only EUKARYOTIC CELLS have a true nucleus contains cell's DNA and is surrounded by a DOUBLE membrane.
Contained w/ in the nucleus are one or more nucleolie, where the ribosomal subunits (or building blocks) are created. The DNA can present as a threadlike mass called chromatin when cell division is imminent . |
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Chromatin
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Threadlike masses of DNA in Eukaryotes
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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
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Present within a nucleus. It is a network of channels or canals running through the cytoplasm. Most eukaryotes contain two distinct but interrelated forms of ER: Rough ER and Smooth ER
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Rough ER
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One form of endoplasmic reticulum that is studded with ribosomes (the site of protein synthesis).
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Smooth ER
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One form of endoplasmic reticulum that extends from the rough ER and does NOT have ribosomes on the OUTER SURFACE.
Smooth ER synthesizes phospholipids, fats, and steroids. |
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Golgi complex
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Present within a nucleus. Functions in the secretion and release from the cell of certain proteins, lipids, and carbs.
It's like a "packaging" station where proteins are packaged for release into the cell cytoplasm or for release outside the cell. |
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Lysosomes
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Contained within the nuclues. They break down (lyse) outdated materials. They contain digestive enzymes that digest molecules or phagocytized materials.
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Vacuoles
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Also contained within the nucleus, they are membrane-bound bag, created either by the Golgi complex of by endocytosis.
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Mitochondria
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Contained withing the nucleus. Spherical or rod-shaped. These are literally the powerhouses of the cell which produce ATP
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What is the evolution of Eukaryotes?
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Is is theorized that prokaryotes may have evolved into eukaryotes slowly by developing their own organelles and packaging them in membranes.
Andy's favorite theory: that separate prokaryotes combined into symbiotic arrangements. |
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Notes on "Why Microbiologists Study Termites"
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They tunnel into wood, plant fungi that grow on the wood, THEN eat the fungi, but NOT the wood itself.
Many species have a symbiotic relationship with microorganisms that digest cellulose for them so that they can eat it. Some termites couldn't survive or move w/out a symbiotic relationship w/ microbes. Endosymbiosis - these termites rely on nitrogen fixing bacteria and on a protozoan called Trichonympha sphaerica to digest cellulose. |
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Endosymbiosis
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A symbiotic relationship with an organism that lives inside the body of the host organism.
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Trichonympha sphaerica
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the protozoan that lives in the gut of termites. Used to digest cellulose. It ALSO has a symbiotic relationship with yet another bacteria.
Has flagella are covered with rows of thousands of bacteria, either rodes or spirochetes that are responsible, like oarsmen, for |
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Ectosymbiosis
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A symbiotic relationship w/ organisms that live outside its body. (such as T. sphaerica)
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Mixotrica
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another protozoan that lives in a termites guts. Covered w/ rows of spirtochetes ALL over to move this protozoan
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Notes from "Ancient Bacteria Brought Back to Life"
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in 4 year, over 1,000 types of bacteria and microorganisms were revived from the guts of petrified insects.
Modern contaminants? Bacillus sphaericus. Old forms are very similar to modern forms, but may provide antibiotic opportunities.8 |
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When Bacteria Stick Together, We Suffer For It - Notes
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Biofilms can cause recurring infections, such as ear or bladder infections (and even death). Most microorganisms grow in organized communities.
Pseudomona aeruginosa (causes cystic fibrosis) creates a biofilm. Bacteria have defense mechanisms that get turned on inside of a slime layer. The biofilm disappears once nutrients go away. Then they bust apart and swim away, looking for better digs. Bacterium communicate and take "head counts" to see if there are enough in a colony to perform a certain function. |
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Pseudomonas aeruginosa
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Slime layer producing bacteria that infects the lungs of patients w/ cystic fibrosis. Eventally kills them.
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Vibrio fischeri
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bacteria responsible for producing light for deep-sea fish. Sends out a chemical messenger called acylated-homoserine lactone, to take a head-count to see if there's enough in the colony to perform the task of making light.
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Acylated-homoserine lactone
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chemical messenger that takes a "head count" in Vibrio fishceri in order to see if there's enough in their colony to make light.
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Quorum sensing
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Chemical census-taking
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Furanone
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Chemical derived from red seaweed that prevents bacteria from "quorum sensing" by interrupting their chemical conversations with "confusion".
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How do GRAM POSITIVE bacteria communicate?
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With short pieces of protein.
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Fibrobacter succinogenes
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Bacteria in cow's stomachs. Responsible for breaking down the cellulose in grass. Always accompanied in a biofilm along w/ another bacteria call Treponema. MUCH more effective when in symbiosis.
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Treponema
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Co-exists w/ Fibrobacter succinogenes - responsible for "sucking up the toxin substance that is caused by F. succinogenes as a by-product of breaking down cellulose.
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Nurturing our Microbes - Notes
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Lactobacillus acidophilus - helps prevent osteoporosis.
Combining prebiotics w/ probiotics reversed bone loss. |
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What is one of the main reservoirs of microbial life?
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Soil.
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What are soil microorganisms in Utah good at doing
|
Stabilizing dry desert soil.
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Soil
|
It is like a "biological fire". A leaf falling from a tree is consumed by it and degraded back to its basic elements.
Soil contains: Minerals, organic matter, water and gases, multicellular organisms, soil microbiota (including Geosmin), and microbial pathogens (i.e. Clostridium...tetanus?) |
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What is Geosmin?
|
The gaseous microbe in soil, responsible for giving soil its musty odor.
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Clostridium
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microbial pathogen in the soil.
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What is the Biogeochemical Cycle?
|
The recycling of chemical elements so that that can be used over and over again.
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What are the four parts of the Geochemical Cycle?
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Carbon Cycle, Nitrogen Cycle, Sulfur Cycle and Phosphorus Cycle.
Without the participation of microbes in these cycles, essential elements would become depleted and all life would cease. |
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What is Bioremediation?
|
The use of microbes to "clean up" toxic wastes.
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Lay out the Carbon Cycle.
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Green plants, algae and bacteria incorporate atmospheric CO2 into organic compounds
Animals eat the plants and digest and synthesize their own organic compounds. During respiration some CO2 is released by animals and is available to start the cycle again. When animal dies, it is decomposed by microbes in the soil which again releases CO2 into the atmosphere, starting cycle all over again. |
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What are rhizobiums?
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Bacteria that has a symbiotic relationship with the roots of leguminous plants (soybeans, beans, peas, peanuts, alfalfa, clover, etc). Creates nodules on roots. Lives inside these and converts Nitrogen into ammonia which can then be converted into nitrates for use by the plant.
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What are the elements of the Nitrogen cycle?
|
Nitrogen is needed by all organisms for the synthesis of proteins, nucleic acids, et.
Free nitrogen makes up 80% of atmosphere Present in decomposing organic matter. Both atmospheric nitrogen and nitrogen in organic matter are processed by microbes into ammonia gas. Ammonis is converted into nitrates for use by plants in protein synthesis. |
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Water are the main steps of municipal water treatment?
|
Standing for long periods of time in a reservoir (large particulates settle)
Flocculation treatment w/ alum to remove small particulates Sand or crushed anthracite coal filtration to remove more material. Effective at remove Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium cysts as well as viruses and bacteria. (Low pressure "membrane filtration systems" are now coming into use which have pore openings small enough to catch 0.2um Chlorination or UV light. |
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What counts as sewage water?
|
Water that has been used for bathing or for toilet wastes.
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What is Eutrophication (think Moo-trification)
|
Think runoff and cows pooping in water....it flourished w/ algae and stuff....then slowly dies off due ot lack of nutrients and oxygen (this is the process of turning lakes into marshes and eventually into dry land)
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What is B.O.D.?
|
Biochemical oxygen demand. It is a measurement used to determine how much organic matter remains after each step on sewage treatment
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What are teh steps in Sewage treatment
|
PRIMARY TREATMENT
SECONDARY TREAMENT |
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What are the steps of Primary Treatment?
|
PHYSICAL PROCESS.
Screen out floating materials Skimmers remove floating oil and grease Sewage then goes to sedimentation tanks where solid matter settles. Settled solid are called Primary Sludge The liquid that flows off is call Effluent |
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What are the steps of Secondary Treatment?
|
BIOLOGICAL PROCESS
Aeration of effluent. This encourages the growth of aerobes due to increased oxygen. BY-PRODUCTS: CO2 and Water. |
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What 3 kinds of Aeration are there?
|
ACTIVATED SLUDGE SYSTEM which relies on blowing air through the sewage to promote bacterial decomposition.
TRICKLING FILTER which sprays effluent down into round tanks that have rocks or plastic covered in ZOOGLEAL SLIME which digest the organic matter ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTRACTOR a system which is a series or disc several feet in diameter, mounted on a shaft. Accumulated biofilm sloughs off when it gets too thick. |
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What happens to the sludge from the primary and secondary treament?
|
Place into tanks w/ floating roofs to encourage anaerobic growth...this produces methane which can be used as fuel.
The final, recalcitrant sludge is shipped off to the dump. |
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Septic Tanks
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Uses lots of land to take care of sewage.
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Zoogleal Slime
|
Biofilm that grows on the plastic or rocks for SECONDARY TREATMENT step of treating sewage
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Disinfection
|
Final step (unless TERTIARY STEP is taken to make water drinkable). Chlorine or UV light.
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amenable
|
obedient; readily managed; responsive
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Bioremediation - Bacteria clean up pollution - Notes
|
Pseudomonas - bacteria used to eat the oil in the Exxon Valdez spill.
They sped up the metabolizing process of this bacteria by feeeding it nitrogen and phosphorus. |
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Pseudomonas
|
bacteria used to clean up oil spill
It may be used now to clean up mercury by converting methyl mercury to mercuric ion |
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|
Desulfovibrio desulfuricans
|
Bacteria that makes mercury even MORE toxic, creating methyl mercury which stick to plankton, gets eaten by fish, etc.
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Gluconacetobacter xylinus
|
Used to produce cotton and polyester
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Trichoderma
|
A fungus used to digest cellulose in cotton to "stonewash" it..make it soft
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Pseudomonas putida
|
creates Indole, which is put into E. Coli which turns blue....thus we have Indigo dye w/out the mega hazard.
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What is that Slime - Notes
|
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (cystic fibrosis) - can grow in a human without causing disease until they form a biofilm that overcomes our immune system
Myxococcus xanthus - cells that 'hunt" in packs Vibrio fischeri - a bioluminescent bacterium that lives in deep sea fish...makes light. This is caused when they produce the enzyme LUCIFERASE, which is used in the chemical pathway of bioluminescence. |
