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129 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Waste Excretion
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Respiratory Integumentary (sweat) Digestive Urinary |
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Respiratory waste excretion
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CO2, water vapor
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Integumentary (sweat) waste excretion
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water, salts, urea
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Digestive waste excretion
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bile salts, pigments
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Urinary
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urea, salts, water, other soluble waste
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Urology
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study of the urinary system
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Nephrology
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study of kidneys
horse-heart shaped cat-bean shaped cow-lobed shaped |
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Nephrectomy
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removal of a kidney
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Renal
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kidney
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Polyuria
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peeing a lot
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Polydipsia
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drinking a lot
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Dysuria
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difficulty urinating
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Hematuria
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blood in urine
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Pyuria
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pus in urine
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Pollakiuria
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frequency to pee |
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Stranguria
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straining to pee
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Oliguria
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little pee
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Anuria
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no pee
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Pyelonephritis
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infection of the kidney and upper urinary tract that results in infection of the bladder
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Cystotomy
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removal of the bladder
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Cystitis
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bladder stone
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Uremia
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Azotemia
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build up of waste materials
creatine and bun in blood because of insufficient removal in the kidneys |
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Diuresis
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surplus of water leads to elevated production of urine
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Urolithiasis
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bladder stones
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Nephrolithiasis
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kidney stones
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Cystic
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bladder
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Calculi
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stone
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Hydronephrosis
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swelling of kidney due to build up of urine
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Glomerulonephritis
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kidney disease that affects part of the kidney that filters waste and fluids from the blood
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Proteinuria
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protein in urine |
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Urinary System
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-Most important route for waste product removal -Removes nearly all soluble waste from blood-Major route for elimination of excess water |
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Components of Urinary System
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-Kidneys -Ureters -Urinary bladder -Urethra |
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Kidney Functions
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-Production of urine to eliminate metabolic byproducts through blood filtration and waste secretion -Nutrient and water conservation and reabsorption -Acid-base regulation -Hormone production -Blood pressure regulation |
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Kidney Location
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-Dorsal abdominal area in the lumbar region-Retroperitoneal – outside of peritoneum -Perirenal fat -Right kidney is more cranial than left (except porcine kidneys) |
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Kidney Structure
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-Fibrous capsule -Hilus – nerves, vessels, ureters -Renal pelvis -Renal cortex -Renal medulla -Calyx (calyces) |
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Kidney Blood & Nerve Supply, part 1
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-Renal artery/vein -Primarily sympathetic nervous system–causes vasoconstriction of renal vessels &temporarily decreases urine production -Kidneys can function without nerve supply (think kidney transplants) |
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Nephron
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-Basic functional unit -Renal corpuscle *Glomerulus *Bowman’s capsule -Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) -Loop of Henle -Distal convoluted tubule (DCT) |
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Renal Corpuscle
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-Glomerulus surrounded by Bowman’s capsule-Filters blood to make glomerular filtrate -Proteins and cells stay in circulation |
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Renal Corpuscle- Size difference between afferent and efferent arterioles
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Creates pressure to push plasma through fenestrations in capillary endothelium
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Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)
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Depends on renal blood flow/pressure
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Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
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-Continuation of capsular space from Bowman’s capsule -Glomerular filtrate now called tubular filtrate-Reabsorption of many electrolytes, minerals, glucose, amino acids, bicarbonate, & water -Secretion of waste products -Located primarily in renal cortex |
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Loop of Henle
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-Continuation of PCT -Descends into medulla then ascends back to cortex -Descending loop has cuboidal cells with brush border -Deepest loop flattens to simple squamous & loses brush border -Ascending wall becomes thicker again but does not regain the brush border |
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Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) & Collecting Ducts
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-DCT is continuation of ascending Loop of Henle * primary site of secretion -Collecting ducts *several DCTs drain into ducts *empty to the renal pelvis *primary site of ADH action *regulation of potassium and acid-base balance |
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Kidney Blood & Nerve Supply, part 2
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-Renal arteryGlomerular afferent arterioles -Glomerular capillaries -Glomerular efferent arterioles -Peritubular capillaries *oxygen transfer to nephron *tubular reabsorption *tubular secretion -Renal venules -Renal vein |
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Reabsorption Summary part 1
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-65% of reabsorption takes place in PCT -100% of glucose and amino acids -Additional reabsorption in loop of Henle, DCT, and collecting ducts -Sodium reabsorbed in PCT via active process-Glucose and amino acids reabsorbed by taking advantage of the sodium transport process – sodium cotransport |
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Reabsorption Summary part 2
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-Sodium reabsorbed in DCT via exchange mechanism under the influence of aldosterone -Many substances reabsorbed via passive transport or diffusion -Urea is passively reabsorbed to some extent despite being a waste product – blood level is blood urea nitrogen (BUN) |
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Secretion Summary
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-Most secretion takes place in the DCT -Hydrogen, potassium, and ammonia are some of the most important substances secreted-Some drugs are eliminated via secretion |
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Urine Volume Regulation
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-Mostly controlled by antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from the posterior pituitary and aldosterone from the adrenal cortex -ADH is most important and acts on the DCT and collecting ducts to promote water reabsorption |
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Urine Volume Regulation-
Aldosterone |
Increases reabsorption of sodium into the DCT and collecting duct – creates an osmotic imbalance that encourages water reabsorption as well
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Blood Pressure Regulation
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-Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS) -If juxtaglomerular cells in the afferent glomerular arterioles detect a decrease in blood pressure or if macula densa cells in the ascending loop of Henle detect less NaCl, the juxtaglomerular cells release renin -Angiotensin II causes arterial constriction & aldosterone release (both ^ blood pressure) |
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Blood Pressure Regulation-Renin
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(an enzyme) splits angiotensin into angiotensin I. Angiotensin I is then converted to angiotensin II by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE).
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Blood Pressure Regulation- ACE-inhibitors
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Such as Enalapril and Benazepril work to decrease blood pressure by inhibiting the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II by ACE. They are used for heart disease, hypertension, and proteinuria. |
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Ureters part 1
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-Continuation of renal pelvis -Each exits at the hilus -Trigone – where ureters enter the bladder |
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Ureters- 3 layers
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- Outer fibrous - Middle muscular *(smooth muscle propels urine via peristalsis) - Inner epithelial *(transitional cell – allows stretching during urine passage) |
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Ureters part 2
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-Enter bladder at oblique angle -Openings collapse when bladder fills -Peristaltic movements still propel urine into bladder unless bladder pressure overcomes ureteral pressure |
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Urinary Bladder (Size and position varies by species) |
-Transitional epithelium -Detrusor muscle contracts during urination -Circular sphincter muscles around neck of the bladder provide voluntary control over urination (micturition) |
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Urethra
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-Continuation of the neck of the bladder -Runs through pelvic canal -Lined with transitional epithelium |
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Male urethra
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-Longer and curved -Ventral aspect of penis -Os penis in some species pelvic portion is where the vas deferens deliver the spermatozoa and are mixed with secretions from reproductive glands |
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Female urethra
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-Shorter and straighter -Opens on floor of vestibule of vulva |
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testes |
male gonads which are housed in the scrotum |
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spermatozoa |
produced in the seminiferous tubules of the testes stored in the epididymis |
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androgens |
produced in interstitial cells between the tubules |
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vas deferens |
muscular tube that carries spermatozoa up to the pelvic portion of the urethra when ejaculation occurs |
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accessory reproductive glands in males |
prostate gland, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral glands |
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penis |
male organ of copulation |
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zygote |
fertilized ovum contains chromosomes from the ovum and the spermatozoon |
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cleavage |
rapid initial period of cell division of the zygote as it moves down the oviduct toward the uterus |
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implantation |
blastocyst embeds itself in a shallow pit in the endomedtrium stays till parturition |
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first trimester |
period of the embryo |
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second trimester |
fetal development |
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third trimester |
fetal growth |
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gestation |
period of pregnancy |
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first stage of labor |
uterine contractions push the fetus down against the relaxed cervix dilating its opening |
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second stage of labor |
birth of offspring by combined contractions of the uterus and the abdominal muscles |
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third stage of labor |
delivery of the placenta |
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involution of the uterus |
process of continued uterine contractions after parturition is complete that gradually restore the uterus to its nonpregnant size |
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udder of the cow |
4 mammary glands are organized into the udder each separate gland is called a quarter the quarters are separate units with separate milk secreting systems and ducts |
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placenta layers |
amnion-surrounds the fetus allantosis-fetal waste chorion-attaches to the uterine lining |
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diffuse placenta attachment |
attached everywhere in the uterus but lightly horse, pig, camelid |
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cotyledonary placenta attachment |
placentome- placental attachment caruncle-projection from uterine cotyledon-projection from placenta ruminants most likely to get retained |
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zonary placenta attachment |
dogs and cats |
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discoid placenta attachment |
primates, rabbits, rodents |
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aldosterone |
adrenal cortex increases absorption of sodium in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct |
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the clutch |
number of eggs that female lays and incubates |
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air sacs |
abdominal caudal thoracic cranial thoracic cervical clavicular |
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avian waste |
feces-waste from GI tract urates- white chalky excretion of nitrogenous waste urine-liquid waste that suspends the solid portions |
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proventriculus |
glandular stomach produces gastric acid and is the site of chemical digestion |
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ventriculus/gizzard |
muscular stomach grind food mechanical digestion |
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external ear on bird |
funnels sound to the tympanum |
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middle ear on bird |
single bone/columella transfers sound to the inner ear |
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inner ear on bird |
membranous labyrinth that controls balance and equilibrium cochlea converts sound into nerve impulses |
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wing muscle |
pectoralis-depresses wing for downstroke supracoracoideus-pulls wing up |
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keel |
bony ridge that is the origin of flight muscles |
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avian skeletal system |
reduction in number of bones fusion of bones to form plates for support and strength reduction in bone density and loss of internal bone matrix |
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contour feathers |
wing feathers and tail feathers around the opening of the external ear |
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semiplume feathers |
no barbules |
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down feathers |
thermoregulation |
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bristle feathers |
like whiskers/tactile |
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uropygial gland |
preen gland secretes oil that birds rub over their feathers when grooming aids in waterproofing contains vitamin d precursors |
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carbohydrates and proteins |
produce energy |
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vitamins |
used as a co-enzyme |
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glucose |
fundamental building block of carbohydrates used to make ATP through glycolysis |
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glycolysis |
main source of energy for red blood cells and neurons |
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glycogen |
if glucose isn't used immediately it's converted to this and stored in the liver or converted to fat and stored in adipose tissue |
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short chain fatty acids |
vital source of energy for ruminants |
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essential fatty acids |
those that cant be synthesized by the body in a sufficient manner linoleic acid linolenic acid arachidonic acid |
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amino acids |
building blocks of proteins 22 different types cant be stored oxidized to make energy or broken down and converted to carbohydrates and fats |
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nitrogen balance |
rate of protein synthesis equals rate of protein breakdown and loss |
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ruminants |
digestion of proteins from grasses and grains is facilitated by microbes and volatile fatty acids microbial made protein has consistent quality rumen has the ability to convert non protein sources of nitrogen into protein |
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vitamins |
coenzymes or parts that activate an enzyme to carry out its metabolic function |
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fat soluble vitamins |
A,D,E,K |
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minerals |
inorganic substances that dont generate energy |
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metabolism |
cell spends its life breaking down nutrients and building neccessary molecules |
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catabolism |
breaking down nutrients into smaller molecules to produce energy/ATP |
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anabolism |
stored energy/ATP is used to assemble new molecules |
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Catabolic metabolism |
stage 1-GI tract-building block molecules stage 2- cytosol-cellular respiration stage 3- mitochondria-aerobic respiration |
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anaerobic respiration |
metabolic process that doesnt use oxygen acetyl CoA is a product |
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aerobic respiration |
O2 is final electron acceptor-H2O requires oxygen and involves the attachment of an inorganic phosphate group/PO4 to a molecule of ADP forms ATP |
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dehydration synthesis |
process of combining 2 or more simple units to form a more complex unit by removal of water |
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liver |
manufactures proteins and clotting factors manufactures and stores glycogen and fat |
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enzymes |
specialized proteins that speed up chemical reactions in the body specific act on more than one substrate catalysts that increase the rate of metabolic reactions |
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glucose can enter a cell by facilitated diffusion or active transport |
further broken down to form mpyruvate/pyruvic acid during glycolysis |
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one pathway |
pyruvate is transported from the cytosol to the mitochondria where aerobic respiration will further degrade it |
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other pathway |
oxygen is depleted skeletal muscle will convert pyruvate to lactic acid lactic acid build up causes a stiff feeling |
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aerobic respiration occurs in 2 stages in the mitochondria |
krebs cycle electron transport chain |
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one molecule of glucose yields how much ATP maximum |
36-38 |
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lipid metabolism |
liver controls liver can structurally alter lipids to enable them to enter glycolic pathway to form pyruvic acid or be fed directly into the krebs cycle in a process called lipolysis |
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deamination |
the amine group is removed from the carbon chain molecule becomes ammonia ammonia is toxic so occurs in the liver and is converted to urea |