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129 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Waste Excretion

Respiratory


Integumentary (sweat)


Digestive


Urinary

Respiratory waste excretion
CO2, water vapor
Integumentary (sweat) waste excretion
water, salts, urea
Digestive waste excretion
bile salts, pigments
Urinary
urea, salts, water, other soluble waste
Urology
study of the urinary system
Nephrology
study of kidneys

horse-heart shaped


cat-bean shaped


cow-lobed shaped

Nephrectomy
removal of a kidney
Renal
kidney
Polyuria
peeing a lot
Polydipsia
drinking a lot
Dysuria
difficulty urinating
Hematuria
blood in urine
Pyuria
pus in urine
Pollakiuria

frequency to pee

Stranguria
straining to pee
Oliguria
little pee
Anuria
no pee
Pyelonephritis
infection of the kidney and upper urinary tract that results in infection of the bladder
Cystotomy
removal of the bladder
Cystitis
bladder stone
Uremia

Azotemia
build up of waste materials

creatine and bun in blood because of insufficient removal in the kidneys

Diuresis
surplus of water leads to elevated production of urine
Urolithiasis
bladder stones
Nephrolithiasis
kidney stones
Cystic
bladder
Calculi
stone
Hydronephrosis
swelling of kidney due to build up of urine
Glomerulonephritis
kidney disease that affects part of the kidney that filters waste and fluids from the blood
Proteinuria

protein in urine

Urinary System

-Most important route for waste product removal


-Removes nearly all soluble waste from blood-Major route for elimination of excess water

Components of Urinary System

-Kidneys


-Ureters


-Urinary bladder


-Urethra

Kidney Functions

-Production of urine to eliminate metabolic byproducts through blood filtration and waste secretion


-Nutrient and water conservation and reabsorption


-Acid-base regulation


-Hormone production


-Blood pressure regulation

Kidney Location

-Dorsal abdominal area in the lumbar region-Retroperitoneal – outside of peritoneum


-Perirenal fat


-Right kidney is more cranial than left (except porcine kidneys)

Kidney Structure

-Fibrous capsule


-Hilus – nerves, vessels, ureters


-Renal pelvis


-Renal cortex


-Renal medulla


-Calyx (calyces)

Kidney Blood & Nerve Supply, part 1

-Renal artery/vein


-Primarily sympathetic nervous system–causes vasoconstriction of renal vessels &temporarily decreases urine production


-Kidneys can function without nerve supply (think kidney transplants)

Nephron

-Basic functional unit


-Renal corpuscle


*Glomerulus


*Bowman’s capsule


-Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)


-Loop of Henle


-Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)

Renal Corpuscle

-Glomerulus surrounded by Bowman’s capsule-Filters blood to make glomerular filtrate


-Proteins and cells stay in circulation



Renal Corpuscle- Size difference between afferent and efferent arterioles
Creates pressure to push plasma through fenestrations in capillary endothelium
Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)
Depends on renal blood flow/pressure
Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)

-Continuation of capsular space from Bowman’s capsule


-Glomerular filtrate now called tubular filtrate-Reabsorption of many electrolytes, minerals, glucose, amino acids, bicarbonate, & water


-Secretion of waste products


-Located primarily in renal cortex

Loop of Henle

-Continuation of PCT


-Descends into medulla then ascends back to cortex


-Descending loop has cuboidal cells with brush border


-Deepest loop flattens to simple squamous & loses brush border


-Ascending wall becomes thicker again but does not regain the brush border

Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) & Collecting Ducts

-DCT is continuation of ascending Loop of Henle * primary site of secretion


-Collecting ducts


*several DCTs drain into ducts


*empty to the renal pelvis


*primary site of ADH action


*regulation of potassium and acid-base balance

Kidney Blood & Nerve Supply, part 2

-Renal arteryGlomerular afferent arterioles


-Glomerular capillaries


-Glomerular efferent arterioles


-Peritubular capillaries


*oxygen transfer to nephron


*tubular reabsorption


*tubular secretion


-Renal venules


-Renal vein

Reabsorption Summary part 1

-65% of reabsorption takes place in PCT


-100% of glucose and amino acids


-Additional reabsorption in loop of Henle, DCT, and collecting ducts


-Sodium reabsorbed in PCT via active process-Glucose and amino acids reabsorbed by taking advantage of the sodium transport process – sodium cotransport

Reabsorption Summary part 2

-Sodium reabsorbed in DCT via exchange mechanism under the influence of aldosterone


-Many substances reabsorbed via passive transport or diffusion


-Urea is passively reabsorbed to some extent despite being a waste product – blood level is blood urea nitrogen (BUN)

Secretion Summary

-Most secretion takes place in the DCT


-Hydrogen, potassium, and ammonia are some of the most important substances secreted-Some drugs are eliminated via secretion

Urine Volume Regulation

-Mostly controlled by antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from the posterior pituitary and aldosterone from the adrenal cortex


-ADH is most important and acts on the DCT and collecting ducts to promote water reabsorption



Urine Volume Regulation-

Aldosterone

Increases reabsorption of sodium into the DCT and collecting duct – creates an osmotic imbalance that encourages water reabsorption as well
Blood Pressure Regulation

-Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)


-If juxtaglomerular cells in the afferent glomerular arterioles detect a decrease in blood pressure or if macula densa cells in the ascending loop of Henle detect less NaCl, the juxtaglomerular cells release renin


-Angiotensin II causes arterial constriction & aldosterone release (both ^ blood pressure)

Blood Pressure Regulation-Renin
(an enzyme) splits angiotensin into angiotensin I. Angiotensin I is then converted to angiotensin II by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE).
Blood Pressure Regulation- ACE-inhibitors

Such as Enalapril and Benazepril work to decrease blood pressure by inhibiting the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II by ACE.


They are used for heart disease, hypertension, and proteinuria.

Ureters part 1

-Continuation of renal pelvis


-Each exits at the hilus


-Trigone – where ureters enter the bladder



Ureters- 3 layers

- Outer fibrous


- Middle muscular


*(smooth muscle propels urine via peristalsis) - Inner epithelial


*(transitional cell – allows stretching during urine passage)

Ureters part 2

-Enter bladder at oblique angle


-Openings collapse when bladder fills


-Peristaltic movements still propel urine into bladder unless bladder pressure overcomes ureteral pressure

Urinary Bladder


(Size and position varies by species)

-Transitional epithelium


-Detrusor muscle contracts during urination


-Circular sphincter muscles around neck of the bladder provide voluntary control over urination (micturition)

Urethra

-Continuation of the neck of the bladder


-Runs through pelvic canal


-Lined with transitional epithelium

Male urethra

-Longer and curved


-Ventral aspect of penis


-Os penis in some species


pelvic portion is where the vas deferens deliver the spermatozoa and are mixed with secretions from reproductive glands

Female urethra

-Shorter and straighter


-Opens on floor of vestibule of vulva

testes

male gonads which are housed in the scrotum

spermatozoa

produced in the seminiferous tubules of the testes


stored in the epididymis

androgens

produced in interstitial cells between the tubules

vas deferens

muscular tube that carries spermatozoa up to the pelvic portion of the urethra when ejaculation occurs

accessory reproductive glands in males

prostate gland, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral glands

penis

male organ of copulation

zygote

fertilized ovum


contains chromosomes from the ovum and the spermatozoon

cleavage

rapid initial period of cell division of the zygote as it moves down the oviduct toward the uterus

implantation

blastocyst embeds itself in a shallow pit in the endomedtrium


stays till parturition

first trimester

period of the embryo

second trimester

fetal development

third trimester

fetal growth

gestation

period of pregnancy

first stage of labor

uterine contractions push the fetus down against the relaxed cervix dilating its opening

second stage of labor

birth of offspring by combined contractions of the uterus and the abdominal muscles

third stage of labor

delivery of the placenta

involution of the uterus

process of continued uterine contractions after parturition is complete that gradually restore the uterus to its nonpregnant size

udder of the cow

4 mammary glands are organized into the udder


each separate gland is called a quarter


the quarters are separate units with separate milk secreting systems and ducts

placenta layers

amnion-surrounds the fetus


allantosis-fetal waste


chorion-attaches to the uterine lining

diffuse placenta attachment

attached everywhere in the uterus but lightly


horse, pig, camelid



cotyledonary placenta attachment

placentome- placental attachment


caruncle-projection from uterine


cotyledon-projection from placenta


ruminants


most likely to get retained

zonary placenta attachment

dogs and cats

discoid placenta attachment

primates, rabbits, rodents

aldosterone

adrenal cortex


increases absorption of sodium in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct

the clutch

number of eggs that female lays and incubates

air sacs

abdominal


caudal thoracic


cranial thoracic


cervical


clavicular

avian waste

feces-waste from GI tract


urates- white chalky excretion of nitrogenous waste


urine-liquid waste that suspends the solid portions

proventriculus

glandular stomach


produces gastric acid and is the site of chemical digestion

ventriculus/gizzard

muscular stomach


grind food


mechanical digestion

external ear on bird

funnels sound to the tympanum

middle ear on bird

single bone/columella transfers sound to the inner ear

inner ear on bird

membranous labyrinth that controls balance and equilibrium


cochlea converts sound into nerve impulses

wing muscle

pectoralis-depresses wing for downstroke


supracoracoideus-pulls wing up

keel

bony ridge that is the origin of flight muscles

avian skeletal system

reduction in number of bones


fusion of bones to form plates for support and strength


reduction in bone density and loss of internal bone matrix

contour feathers

wing feathers and tail feathers


around the opening of the external ear

semiplume feathers

no barbules

down feathers

thermoregulation

bristle feathers

like whiskers/tactile

uropygial gland

preen gland


secretes oil that birds rub over their feathers when grooming


aids in waterproofing


contains vitamin d precursors

carbohydrates and proteins

produce energy

vitamins

used as a co-enzyme

glucose

fundamental building block of carbohydrates


used to make ATP through glycolysis

glycolysis

main source of energy for red blood cells and neurons



glycogen

if glucose isn't used immediately it's converted to this and stored in the liver or converted to fat and stored in adipose tissue

short chain fatty acids

vital source of energy for ruminants

essential fatty acids

those that cant be synthesized by the body in a sufficient manner


linoleic acid


linolenic acid


arachidonic acid

amino acids

building blocks of proteins


22 different types


cant be stored


oxidized to make energy or broken down and converted to carbohydrates and fats



nitrogen balance

rate of protein synthesis equals rate of protein breakdown and loss

ruminants

digestion of proteins from grasses and grains is facilitated by microbes and volatile fatty acids


microbial made protein has consistent quality


rumen has the ability to convert non protein sources of nitrogen into protein

vitamins

coenzymes or parts that activate an enzyme to carry out its metabolic function

fat soluble vitamins

A,D,E,K

minerals

inorganic substances that dont generate energy

metabolism

cell spends its life breaking down nutrients and building neccessary molecules

catabolism

breaking down nutrients into smaller molecules to produce energy/ATP

anabolism

stored energy/ATP is used to assemble new molecules

Catabolic metabolism

stage 1-GI tract-building block molecules


stage 2- cytosol-cellular respiration


stage 3- mitochondria-aerobic respiration

anaerobic respiration

metabolic process that doesnt use oxygen


acetyl CoA is a product



aerobic respiration

O2 is final electron acceptor-H2O


requires oxygen and involves the attachment of an inorganic phosphate group/PO4 to a molecule of ADP


forms ATP



dehydration synthesis

process of combining 2 or more simple units to form a more complex unit by removal of water

liver

manufactures proteins and clotting factors


manufactures and stores glycogen and fat

enzymes

specialized proteins that speed up chemical reactions in the body


specific


act on more than one substrate


catalysts that increase the rate of metabolic reactions

glucose can enter a cell by facilitated diffusion or active transport

further broken down to form mpyruvate/pyruvic acid during glycolysis



one pathway

pyruvate is transported from the cytosol to the mitochondria where aerobic respiration will further degrade it

other pathway

oxygen is depleted


skeletal muscle will convert pyruvate to lactic acid


lactic acid build up causes a stiff feeling



aerobic respiration occurs in 2 stages in the mitochondria

krebs cycle


electron transport chain

one molecule of glucose yields how much ATP maximum

36-38

lipid metabolism

liver controls


liver can structurally alter lipids to enable them to enter glycolic pathway to form pyruvic acid or be fed directly into the krebs cycle in a process called lipolysis

deamination

the amine group is removed from the carbon chain


molecule becomes ammonia


ammonia is toxic so occurs in the liver and is converted to urea