Urinary And Respiratory System

Front 1

nephron

Back 1

1 million per kidney
consist of : glomerulus (caps) and tubules (the walls of which are composed of single layer of cuboidal epithelium)
tubules = bowmans, prox, desc, asc, distal

Front 2

collecting ducts

Back 2

drain several nephrons
Minor calyces drain the collecting ducts

Front 3

major calyces

Back 3

drain the minor calayces
leads into the Renal Pelvis

Front 4

Ureter

Back 4

drains the renal pelvis
connects the kidney to the urinary bladder

Front 5

urinary bladder

Back 5

stores the urine until it is eliminated

Front 6

End products of catabolism= waste products

Back 6

breakdown of protein results in 30g of Urea/day
breakdwon of nucleic acids into Uric acid
breakdown of creatine results in creatinine

Front 7

Kidneys as endocrine glands

Back 7

Produce erythropoietin
produce Renin
Produce the active form of Vitamin D

Front 8

Renal arter

Back 8

branches from the abdominal aorta

Front 9

Interlobar arteries

Back 9

go btwn renal pyramids

Front 10

arcuate arteries

Back 10

arch over the base of renal pyramids

Front 11

interlobular arteries

Back 11

are the vertical branches into cortex

Front 12

afferent arterioles

Back 12

lead to the first set of capillaries in nephron, the glomerulus

Front 13

glomerulus

Back 13

capillary bed where blood is filtered

Front 14

efferent arteriole

Back 14

portal vessel which connects the 2 capillary beds of the kidney
takes blood from glomerulus to the peritubular capillaries

Front 15

peritubular capillaries

Back 15

surrounds the loop of henle and in the collecting ducts and is involved in tubular secretion and reabsorption

Front 16

Renal vein

Back 16

drains into the inferior vena cava

Front 17

3 components of nephron function

Back 17

glomerular filtration
tubular secretion
tubular reabsorption

Favors filtration: net filtration pressure - 10 mmHg. initiates formation of urine by forcing a filtrate into bowmans capsule from glomerulus

Front 18

Glomerular Filtration Rate

Back 18

the volume of fluid filtered through the renal glomerular capillaries into the renal tubules per day.
Average is 180 L/day in 154 lb person
the entire plasma volume is filtered by kidneys about 60 times per day.
1-2 L of urine excreted daily, so if 180 L is filtered, then:
99% of the filtered water is reabsorbed into the peritubular caps.

Front 19

GFR equation

Back 19

a substance which is filtered at the glomerulus but not secreted or reabsorbed by the tubules is needed to calculate GFR
Inulin from plants
GFR = concentration of substance in 24 hour urine/conc of subs in plasma
mg per day/ mg per L = L/day

Front 20

Tubular secretion

Back 20

transports substance from the peritubular capillaries to the lumen of the tubules
this allows for the elimination of substances of which are not needed by the body
Can transport substances by either active or passive mechanisms
The kidney Secretes: H+, K+, foreign chemicals (penicillin)
most of the h and k enters the tubules by secretion rather than by filtration.
kidney regulates the homeostatic levels of these two chemicals by regulating the secretion of them from the kidney tubules

Front 21

Proximal Convoluted Tubule: Substances that are Secreted by Active Transport

Back 21

H+
Hydroxybenzoates
para-aminohippuric acid
Neurotransmitters
Bile pigments
Uric acid
Drugs and toxins

Front 22

Proximal Convoluted tubule:
substance that is secreted by passive transport

Back 22

Ammonia
main product of protein metabolism

Front 23

Distal Convoluted Tubule: Substances that are Secreted by Active Transport

Back 23

K+

Front 24

Distal Convoluted Tubule: Substances that are Secreted by Passive Transport

Back 24

K+
H+

Front 25

Tubular Reabsorption

Back 25

the process by which materials are transferred from the lumen of the kidney tubule to the peritubular capillaries
Allows the substances which were filtered at the glomerulus to be retained by the body instead of being eliminated
Substances can be reabsorbed by either passive diffusion or by active transport
Depending on body's needs, some substances are only partially reabsorbed like urea (approx 44% of the amount filtered is reabsorbed) while others are reabsorbed almost completely like glucose (approx 100%) and water (99%)

Front 26

Substances taht are reabsorbed by active transport

Back 26

sodium
chloride
glucose

Front 27

Substances that are reabsorbed by passive diffusion

Back 27

water
urea

Front 28

ADH

Back 28

hormone that is involved in the regulation of reabsorption of water
Secreted from post. pituitary
target tissue = distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts of kidney
ADH changes the permeability of the tubule membranes allowing water to be reabsorbed through these tubules.
Release of ADH is controlled by the osmolarily of the blood and blood pressure because it travels in the blood
can be stimulated by pain, unpleasant emotion and stress; can affect patients in pain or trauma
Morphine and some anesthetics directly stimulate ADH secretion
Oxytocin and chlorpropamide stimulate ADH production as a side effect
Positive pressure breathing stimulates ADH secretion
Alcohol- decrease plasma osmolarity, inhibits ADH, pee a lot

Front 29

Ventilation

Back 29

exchange of air between the atmosphere and alveoli
the bulk flow of air

Flow (F) = k(P1-P2)
P1 = atmospheric pressure (760 mmHg) - 1 atm at sea level
P2 = alveolar pressure (variable

Front 30

External Respiration

Back 30

The Exchange of O2 and CO2 between alveolar air and the lung capillaries by diffusion

Front 31

Transportation

Back 31

blood transports O2 and CO2

Front 32

Internal Respiration

Back 32

Exhange of O2 and Co2 btwn the blood and tissues of the body by diffusion as blood flows through tissue capillaries

Front 33

Intra pleural pressure

Back 33

Sub-atmospheric at rest (753mm Hg)
decreases to 745 with inspiration
Invites air to enter the pleura

Front 34

Inspiration

Back 34

Muscles:
Diaphragm - contracts down into the abdominal cavity, increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity, decreases the pressure.
External intercostals: move ribs upward and outward, increasing thoracic cage size. (parietal membrane attached to inside of ribs. expand ribs --> expand pleura)


Intrapleural pressure decreases from 753 - 745
Intraalveolar pressure decreases from 760-757 mmHg (With maximal inspiration decreases to 680)
Bulk flow of air into the respiratory airways results.
Negative Pressure Breathing

Airway Resistance decreases because lungs expand, expanding the airways

Front 35

Expiration

Back 35

Lungs and thoracic cage return to original position passively from 760 to 763
Forced expiration = accomplished by expiratory muscles:
internal intercostals - bring the rib cage down
abdominal muscles: increase the pressure within abdom cavity, pushing the liver up towards the thoracic cavity, pushing the diaphragm higher into the thoracic cavity, decreases the volume of thoracic cavity, increasing the pressure inside it
Forced expiration: pressure changes from 760 - 860 (above atmospheric pressure, causing air to diffuse outward)

Airway Resistance increases

Front 36

Airway resistance

Back 36

Resistance of airways is proportional to the interactions of the gas molecules, the length of the airway, and to 1/(r^4)

mainly controlled by radius of airways. Normally large, offering little resistance

airway size regulated by:
Neural control
Hormonal control
Chemical Factors (histamine, prostaglandin)
Local Effects (CO2 changes)

Front 37

Regulation of airways size

Back 37

1. Neural control - ANS
Sympathetic: relax smooth muscles along airway, decreasing resistance by increasing airway size. easier to pull air in and out. passive
Parasympathetic: smooth muscle contraction which decreases airway size and increases resistance (actively inhaling, passive exhaling

2. Hormonal control - epinephrine causes airway dilation

3. Chemical factors:
Histamine causes airway constriction and an increase in mucus secretion.
Prostaglandins are either bronchodilators or bronchoconstrictors.

4. Local Effects:
Increase in CO2 in airways: bronchodilation (detected by medulla, dilates in order to get CO2 out)
Decrease in CO2 - bronchoconstriction

Front 38

Pulmonary blood flow

Back 38

Must match the air flow for the optimum exchange between the alveolus (atmosphere) and capillary (blood).
Blood flow is determined by arterioles that lead to these capillary beds --> can dilate or constrict

Front 39

Chemical Control of pulmonary vessels

Back 39

Local factors affect blood vessel size:

1. Decrease in oxygen in the blood - results in vasoconstriction of the arterioles (allowing more time for gas exchange btwn alveolus and capillary)

2. Increase in oxygen in blood: vasoconstriction of arterioles (already have enough oxygen in blood)

3. Increase in [H+] in blood: vasoconstriction (H+ increase is a reflection of CO2 levels in the blood, so you want to allow the exchange of CO2 from capillary to alveolus)

4. Decrease in [H+]: vasodilation or arterioles

Front 40

Tidal Volume

Back 40

the volume of air entering and leaving the lungs during a single breath
500 mL

Front 41

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

Back 41

the volume of air which can be inspired over and above tidal volume (2500-3500 ml)

Front 42

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

Back 42

the volume of air which can be actively expired by active contraction of the expiratory muscles at the end of a normal expiration (1000 ml)

Front 43

Residual Volume

Back 43

the volume of air remaining in the lungs after a maximal expiration
(1000 ml)

Front 44

Vital capacity

Back 44

the maximum amount of air which can be moved into and out of the lungs during a single breath

VC = TV + IRV + ERV

Front 45

Anatomic Dead Space

Back 45

space within the airways of respiratory tract the walls of which do not permit gas exchange
volume of air it contains = 150 ml

Front 46

Alveolar ventilation

Back 46

the volume of fresh air entering the alveoli each minute (AV)

av = resp rate (RR) x (TV - ADS)

the best alveolar ventilation is achieved when one breathes slowly and deeply

Front 47

Surfactant

Back 47

a phospholipoprotein complex produced by type II alveolar cells
intersperses with the water molecules and reduces the surface tension of the water molecules by preventing the formation of H bonds between H2o molecules

normally the polar nature of water would exert a pull tending to collapse the alveoli

the air in the alveolus is separated from the alveolar membrane by a thin layer of fluid.

Front 48

Respiratory distress syndrome of newborn

Back 48

affects premi infants in whom the type II alveolar cells are immature and have not started to produce surfactant
the infant is able to inspire only with great effort and results in exhaustion, and inability to breathe. Lungs collapse, resulting in death.
Normal maturation of Type II alv cells is facilitated by cortisol, which is secreted late in pregnancy (usually occurs btwn 7-9 months of pregnancy)

Front 49

External Respiration

Back 49

Exchange of gases btwn alveolus and capillaries
There is a difference in concentration and pressure of the gasses on both sides of the membranes.