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129 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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CRANIAL NERVES
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I. OLFACTORY Smell
II. OPTIC Vision III. OCULOMOTOR contraction of eye muscles IV. TROCHLEAR Supplies on eyeball muscle V. TRIGEMINAL impulses from eye muscle/ upper and lower jaw VI. ABDUCENS Controls 1 eye muscle VII. FACIAL Expression VIII. ACOUSTIC OR VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR Hearing IX GLOSSO-PHARYNGEAL Swallowing/Salivary X VAGUS Innervation of Abdominal organs/voice XI ACCESSORY Movement of Neck and Larynx XII HYPOGLOSSAL Tongue Muscles |
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DIVISION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
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Central nervous system (CNS)—brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) —all nerves, outside Autonomic within PNS, divided in 2: Sympathetic: fight or flight Parasympathetic: restore homeostasis |
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AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
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Regulates involuntary functions
During strenuous exercise and strong emotions Response to unusual stimulus The involuntary branch Only motor nerves Controls cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glandular epithelial tissue Divided in Sympathetic and Parasympatheric |
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2 TYPES OF CELLS NERVOUS SYSTEM
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NERURONS
GLIAL CELLS |
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PARASYMPATHETIC
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•Balances things back, relexes things
•SLUDD: Salivation, lacrimation, urination, digestion and degectation •Function-dominates control of many visceral effectors under normal, everyday conditions •Conserves energy •Maintains daily necessary body functions •Remember as the “D” division - digestion, defecation, and diuresis •Cholinergic receptors / Acetylcholine |
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SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
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Serves as the emergency or stress system, controlling visceral effectors
“Fight or Flight” response Andregenic receptors:Norepinephrine/Epinephrine Remember as the “E” division = exercise, excitement, emergency, and embarrassment |
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IMPULSE PROPAGATION
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1. Cell is Resting: More potassium inside, sodium outside, nothing happens
2.Depolarization (change in membranes charge): A Stimulus depolarizes the neuron’s membrane sodium (Na+) to flow inside the cell 3.The Action Potential (impulse)more ion channels open and allow more Na+ inside the cell. Potassium Starts going out. The action potential spreads as a wave of electrical current. 4. Nerve Impulse Propagation: The impulse moves toward the cell body 5. Repolarization of Membrane (After impulse passed) •Sodium-potassium pump restores the original configuration.. Requires ATP. |
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ANDROGENIC VS CHOLLINERGIC RECEPTORS
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Chollinergic - Acetylcholine
Androgenic: Epinephrine/ Norepinephrine |
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AFFERENT VS EFFERENT NEURON
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Afferent = Sensory, towards CNS
Efferent = Motor, Towards Effector |
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SPINAL NERVES
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31 pairs of spinal nerves, each corresponding to a segment of the vertebral column: 8 cervical spinal nerve pairs (C1-C8), 12 thoracic pairs (T1-T12), 5 lumbar pairs (L1-L5), and 5 sacral pairs (S1-S5) and 1 coccygeal pair.Part of the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
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WHITE MATTER VS GRAY MATTER
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White matter: tissue composed primarily of myelinated axons
Gray matter :tissue composed primarily of cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers |
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NERVE TRACT VS. NERVES
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Nerve: bundle of axons in PNS. Myelinated.
Tract: bundle of axons in CNS, may be myelinated |
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SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
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The somatic nervous system (SNS) is the part of the peripheral nervous system associated with the voluntary control of body movements through the action of skeletal muscles, and with reception of external stimuli,
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MYELIN SHEATH
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Schwann cells: Produce myelin sheaths (coverings) around the axons in the PNS. The Sheath is known as Neurolemma
Nodes of Ranvier are gaps in myelin sheath along the axon so there is salutatory conduction that is faster than continuous conduction. The impulse jumps from node to node. |
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WERNIKE
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Wernike area: allows speech recognition (written and spoken) Temporal lobe
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BROCA
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In frontal lobe
production of language |
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VITAL SIGN CENTER OF BRAIN
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MEDULA OBLONGATA: Part of the BRAIN STEM ( formed by pons, medulla oblongata and midbrain)
Vital centers: • Respiratory center • Cardiac center • Vasomotor center |
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CONES AND RODS
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Neurons of the Retina
Photoreceptors Cones function when there is light and are responsible for color vision and central vision Rods are responsible for peripheral vision and night vision |
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2 INVOLUNTARY MUSCLES OF EYE
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Intrinsic muscles include twoinvoluntary muscles:iris and the ciliary muscles. The iris regulates amount of light which can enter the eye.dilating and by constricting The cilliary muscle controls accomodation of lens to focus
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STATIC EQUILIBRIUM
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Static Equilibrium (Vestibule)
Inner ear sense of gravity at rest Vestibule has sacs of fluid calles maculae which are floating, otholiths (calcium carbonate) float in fluid, when they rub against maculae and send message of position to brain |
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DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
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Dynamic Equilibrium (Semicircular Canals)
Dynamic equilibrium – angular and rotary head movements Crista ampullaris – receptors in the semicircular canals detect movement Within the canals are nerve hairs which sense changes in the movement of the perilymph fluid and depolarize, thus sending a message to the brain. Ex: spinning in a circle |
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LIMBIC SYSTEM
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The limbic system includes: support a variety of functions including emotion, behavior, long term memory, and olfaction. Diencephalon is part of limbic system
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CEREBRUM LOBES AND FUNCTION
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Frontal: Primary Motor area , conscious and developed thought
Parietal: primary sensory area, skin,, touch, pain, temperature Temporal: Auditoy and Olfactory area Occupital: visual receiving and association |
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MYOPIA
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•Near-sightedness (distant object are blurry)
•Elongated eye or refraction error •Focuses in front of retina •Vision better with closer objects |
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BRAIN STEM
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Midbrain
Superior part Main controler of visual and auditory systems Pons Connecting link between cerebellum and rest of nervous system Some reflexes involving respiration Medulla Oblongata Vital centers:Respiratory center, Cardiac center and Vasomotor center |
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ASTIGMATISM
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Astigmatism is an optical defect in which vision is blurred due to the inability of the optics of the eye to focus a point object into a sharp focused image on the retina
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HYPEROPIA
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• Far-sightedness
• Shorter eye or error in refraction •Focuses behind retina •Vision better with distant objects |
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Extra-ocular Muscles
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medial rectus (MR)—moves the eye inward, toward the nose (adduction)
lateral rectus (LR)—moves the eye outward, away from the nose (abduction) superior rectus (SR)—moves the eye upward (elevation) inferior rectus (IR)—moves the eye downward (depression) superior oblique (SO)—rotates the top of the eye toward the nose (intorsion) inferior oblique (IO)—rotates the top of the eye away from the nose (extorsion) |
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"LITTLE BRAIN"
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Cerebellum
Second largest part of the human brain •Helps control muscle contractions to produce coordinated movements so that we can maintain balance, move smoothly, and sustain normal postures |
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BLIND SPOT OF VISION
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optic disk entry of nerve. called the blind spot because it contains only nerve fibers, lacks photoreceptor cells, and is insensitive to light
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SHARPEST POINT OF VISION
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Fovea Centralis in Retina
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MACULAE VS. CRISTAE
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The receptors for balance in the semicircular canals are called cristae ampullairs (Dynamic Euilibrium)
Maculae – receptors in the vestibule Report on the position of the head Send information via the vestibular nerve (Static Equilibrium) |
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DIENCEPHALON
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Made of three parts:
1. Thalamus: sensations of pleasure, sensory info manager 2. Epithalamus: roof 3rd ventricle, choroid plexus 3. Hypothalamus: hypothalamic realising hormones, pituitary gland, temperature, hunger, thirst and fatigue |
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GROWTH HORMONE
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Anterior Pituitary
General metabolic hormone •Major effects are directed to growth of skeletal muscles and long bones •Causes amino acids to be built into proteins •Causes fats to be broken down for a source of energy |
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PROLACTIN
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Anterior Pituitary
Stimulates and maintains milk production following childbirth •Function in males is unknown |
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Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
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Anterior Pituitary
•Regulates endocrine activity of the adrenal cortex |
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Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
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Anterior Pituitary
•Influences growth and activity of the thyroid |
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Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
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Anterior Pituitary
•Stimulates follicle development in ovaries •Stimulates sperm development in testes |
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Luteinizing hormone (LH)
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Anterior Pituitary
•Triggers ovulation •Causes ruptured follicle to become the corpus luteum •Stimulates testosterone production in males •Referred to as interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH) |
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oxytocin
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stimulates uterine contractions
stored by posterior pituitary, secreted by hypothalamus |
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Antidiuretic hormone ADH
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posterior pituitary gland stores, secreted by hypothalamus
anti-diuretic hormone- prevents swings in H2O balance, helps body avoid dehydration & H2O overload |
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Calcitonin
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Calcitonin-decreases the blood calcium concentration by inhibiting breakdown of bone, which would release calcium into the blood. Works with parathyroid hormone and vitamin D
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Glucagon
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-secreted by alpha cells: increases the blood glucose level by accelerating liver glycogenolysis (conversion of glycogen to glucose)
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Insulin
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Insulin-secreted by beta cells. decreases the blood glucose by accelerating the movement of glucose out of the blood into cells, Stimulates manufacture of amino acids into protein
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Adrenal Cortex
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Outer layer – mineralocorticoids. Mainly Aldosterone
Increase blood sodium and decreases body potassium. Electrolyte balance. Target organ is the kidney Middle layer: secretes glucocorticoids. Cortisone and cortisol. increasing gluconeogenesis-the formation of “new” glucose from amino acids by protein breakdown in muscles.conversion to glucose of fatty acids Inner layer- secretes sex hormones |
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Adrenal Medula
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stress hormones
“MEN cause stress”=medulla, epinephrine, norepinephrine “Fight or flight” maintaining normal blood pressure- epinephrine and norepinephrine produce an antiinflammatory effect, Converts glycogen stored in liver into glucose. Glucose travels in blood stream to help muscles. |
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MINERALOGLUCOCORTICOID
EXAMPLE |
Aldosterone
Increase blood sodium and decreases body potassium concentrations by accelerating kidney tubule reabsorption of sodium and excretion of potassium Made in cortex (outer layer) |
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GLUCOCORTICOID
EXAMPLE |
Cortisone and cortisol
Help maintain normal blood glucose concentration by increasing gluconeogenesis-the formation of “new” glucose from protein and fat breakdown Made in cortex (middle layer) Antinflamatory reponse |
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Thyroid Gland
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The function of the thyroid gland is to take iodine, found in many foods, and convert it into thyroid hormones: thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3).
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Epinephrine and Anaphylaxis
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Epinephrine is the drug of choice for treatment of anaphylactic shock
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Melatonin
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Secreted by Pineal Gland
pine cone-shaped gland near the roof of the third ventricle of the brain Secretes melatonin Inhibits ovarian activity Appears to delay onset of puberty Regulates the body’s internal clock Influences sleep–wake cycles |
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Tissue Layers of Heart
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Endocardium lines heart’s interior. smooth lining of heart chambers. inflammation of endocardium called endocarditis
Myocardium is thickest layer, middle layer. Cardiac muscle, Lightly striated (striped), Cells have single nucleus, Intercalated disks between cells andMuscle fibers branch Epicardium is thin outermost layer is the Visceral pericardium |
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Sac that Encloses Heart
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Covering sac: pericardium
Has 2 layers: Outer serous layer is called parietal pericardium Inner serous layer is called visceral pericardium or epicardium |
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Liquid Portion of Blood
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Plasma: mostly water
Composition-water with dissolved substances: Nutrients, Salts (metal ions) Respiratory gases (O2; CO2) Hormones Waste products Plasma proteins |
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Blood Flow Through Heart
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superior and inferior venae cavae-, right atrium ,tricuspid valve, right ventricle, pulmonary semilunar valve , pulmonary artery , lungs, Pulmonary veins left atrium ,Bicuspid valve , left ventricle, Aortic semilunar valve ,aorta
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EKG COMPONENTS
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P wave: depolarization of the atria
QRS complex: depolarization of the ventricles T wave: repolarization of the ventricles |
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BLOOD PROTEINS (PLASMA PROTEINS)
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Albumin – regulates osmotic pressure
Fibrinogen – clotting protein Globulins – which include antibodies |
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MOST ABUNDANT PROTEIN IN BLOOD
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Serum albumin is the most abundant blood plasma protein and is produced in the liver and forms a large proportion of all plasma protein. The human version is human serum albumin, and it normally constitutes about 60% of human plasma protein.
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2 MAIN GENERAL ELEMENTS OF BLOOD
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Plasma (water + plasma proteins)
Formed Elements (Rbc, WBC and platelets) |
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FORMED ELEMENTS
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1. Red Blood Cells
2. White Blood Cells 3. Platelets or thrombocytes |
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WHERE DO RBC AND LYMPHOCITES FORM
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RBC - RED BONE MARROW
WBC -LYMPHATIC TISSUE |
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RBC - ERYTHROCYTES
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disk-shaped, without nuclei. Biconcave disks
hemoglobin binds to O2 for transport Anucleate (no nucleus), very few organelles transport oxygen and carbon dioxide Wear out in 100 to 120 days, 4 months, eliminated by phagocytes in the spleen or liver |
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GRANULAR LEUKOCYTES
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PHILS
NEUTROPHIL (pus, phagocytosis) EOSINOPHIL (against parasitic irritant) BASOPHIL (inhibit clottin, heparin) |
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AGRANULAR LEUKOCYTES
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LYMPHOCYTE - produce antibody
MONOCYTE become macrophages |
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UNIVERSAL DONOR
UNIVERSAL RECIPIENT |
Universal Donor: O
Universal Recipient: AB |
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CONDUCTION PATHWAY OF HEART
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1. Atrioventricular (AV) node
2. Internodal pathways 3. Bundle of His, AV Bundle: located in the septum of the ventricle 4. Bundle branches 5. Purkinje fibers: located in the walls of the ventricles |
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LUB - DUB (Chambers)
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Two heart sounds in every heartbeat or cycle-”lub-dub”
First (lub): caused by the vibration and closure of AV valves during contraction of the ventricles Second (dub) sound is caused by the closure of the semilunar valves during relaxation of the ventricles |
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TYPES OF ANEMIA
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Anemia inability of blood to carry adequate oxygen to tissues; caused, for example, by: Inadequate RBC numbers, Deficiency of hemoglobin, Lack of intake of iron - iron deficiency
Sickle Cell Anemia: red blood cell has abnormal crescent shape. Pernicious anemia- decreased red blood cell production due to deficiency of vitamin B12 Polycythemia: Excessive production of RBC’s. Caused by high altitudes, Over production. Problems: Thicken blood .Tx: Give blood |
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HEMOPHILIA
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Hemophilia
• Hereditary bleeding disorder • Normal clotting factors are missing |
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Specific Immunity
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Ability of body to recognize, respond to, and remember harmful substances or bacteria.
Individuals power to resist or overcome the effects of a particular disease. |
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Non Specific Immunity
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Effective against any harmful agent
Chemical and Mechanical Barriers (Skin, Mucous Membranes, Tears) |
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Hemoglobin
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Male: 14-18 g/dL / Female: 12-16 g/dL
Red pigmented, iron-containing protein Transports oxygen molecule Oxygen not readably soluble in water Each hgb molecule has 4 oxygen binding sites-oxyhemoglobin Each RBC has 250 million hgb molecules |
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Layers of Artery
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Tunica intima: inner layer of endothelial cells
Tunica media:smooth muscle with some elastic tissue, thick in arteries; important in blood pressure regulation Tunica adventitia: thin layer of elastic tissue |
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Layers of Vein
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Tunica intima-inner layer; valves prevent retrograde movement of blood
Tunica media-smooth muscle; thin in veins Tunica adventitia-heavy layer in many veins |
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FIBRIN
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Fibrin (also called Factor Ia) is a fibrous protein involved in the clotting of blood, and is non-globular. It is a fibrillar protein that is polymerised to form a "mesh" that forms a hemostatic plug or clot (in conjunction with platelets) over a wound site.
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THROMBIN
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Thrombin is a coagulation protein . converts soluble fibrinogen into insoluble strands of fibrin, as well as catalyzing many other coagulation-related reactions.
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THROMBOCYTE
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Platelets play an essential role in blood clotting
a. Thrombocytes Needed for clotting process Normal platelet count-about 300,000/mm3 Smallest formed element Not cells—no nuclei or DNA Fragments released from megakaryocytes |
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VASCULAR SPASM
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Platelets travel to injury site
blood vessel muscles spam, decrease blood flow loss |
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PLATELET PLUG FORMATION
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Collagen fibers are exposed by broken blood vessel
Platelets become sticky Platelets aggregare, clump user fibrinogen |
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COAGULATION
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Thrombin makes fibrin
Fibrin forms meshwork The clot is fibrin mixed with RBC |
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CLOT DISSOLUTION
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Clot broken down after tissue repair
Plasmin helps in breakdown |
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ARTERIES, ARTERIOLES, VEINS, VENULES, CAPILLARIES
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•Arteries-carry blood away from the heart
•Arterioles: An arteriole is a small extends and branches out from an artery and leads to capillaries Veins-carry blood toward the heart Venules: small blood vessel in the microcirculation that allows deoxygenated blood to return from the capillary beds to the larger blood vessels called veins Capillaries-carry blood from the arterioles to the venules |
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Cardiac Output
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Volume of blood pumped out of one ventricle in one minute
CO =Heart Rate X Stroke Vol. |
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Stroke Volume
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Stroke volume (SV)-volume of blood ejected from one ventricle with each beat
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Lab Test That Measures Blood Volume
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Hematocrit (hct): mL of red cells per 100 mL of whole blood. Centrifuge used to pack cells
Adult range for men 42%–54% Adult range for women 36%–46% |
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CLINICAL PROBLEMS RELATED TO LEUKOCYTES
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Leukopenia-abnormally low WBC count
Leukocytosis-abnormally high WBC count Leukemia-cancer: elevated WBC count; cells do not function properly |
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Pacemaker of Heart
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SA (sinoatrial) node (pacemaker)-located in the wall of the right atrium near the opening of the superior vena cava
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MECHANISM THAT PROMOTE BLOOD RETURN FROM VEIN TO HEART
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Contraction of skeletal muscles
Valves Breathing |
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CAPILLARY BED
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part of the microcirculation. 1 cell thick. These microvessels, , connect arterioles on one side and venules on the other forming the capillary bed., and enable the exchange of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and many other nutrient and waste chemical substances between blood and surrounding tissues
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CAPILLARY EXCHANGE
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Fluids, gasses, nutrients, and wastes are exchanged between the blood and body tissues by diffusion. Capillary walls containpores that allow certain substances to pass Fluid exchange is controlled by blood pressure within the capillary vessel (hydrostatic pressure) and osmotic pressure of the blood within the vessel. The osmotic pressure is produced by high concentrations of salts and plasma proteins in the blood. The capillary walls allow water and small solutes to pass between its pores but does not allow proteins to pass through.
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Return of Lymph to Blood
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right lymphatic duct- drains lymph from upper right portion of body into the right subclavian vein.
2.) thoracic duct- drains lymph from the rest of the body to the left subclavian vein (just before it becomes the superior vena cava). |
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Chambers of Heart
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Right atrium: Receives deoxygenated blood returning from body tissue through superior vena cava and inferior vena cava
Left atrium: Receives oxygenated blood from lungs Right ventricle: Pumps blood from right atrium to lungs Left ventricle: Pumps oxygenated blood to rest of body |
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Blood Pressure
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Push of blood in blood vessels
Highest in arteries, lowest in veins Causes blood to circulate Blood volume, heartbeat, and blood viscosity are main factors that produce blood pressure Measured in the brachial artery using a sphygmomanometer Systolic pressure: Occurs during heart contraction Diastolic pressure: Occurs during heart relaxation |
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Average Blood Volume
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Around 5 liters
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HEMATOCRIT
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Hematocrit (hct): mL of red cells per 100 mL of whole blood. Centrifuge used to pack cells
Adult range for men 42%–54% Adult range for women 36%–46% Hemoglobin: g of hemoglobin per 100 mL of whole blood Adult range for men 14–17 g Adult range for women 12–15 g |
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BRANCHING OF AORTA
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Branches to all organs partsOriginates in left ventricle and ends in 2 illiac arteries.
Ascending, Arch, Descending, Thoracic Abdominal |
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AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM AND HEART REGULATION
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Autonomic nervous system (ANS): controls the firing of the SA node to trigger the start of the cardiac cycle. The autonomic nervous system can transmit a message quickly to the SA node so it in turn can increase or decrease the heart rate
1. Sympathetic nervous system that accelerates the heart rate, constricts blood vessels, and raises blood pressure; and 2. Parasympathetic nervous system slows the heart rate, increases intestinal and gland activity, and relaxes sphincter muscles. |
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BRADYCARDIA
TACHYCARDIA SINUS RHYTHM |
Bradycardia: slow heart rate under 60 beats per minute,
Tachycardia: heart beats too fast, more than 100 beats per minute Sinus arrhythmia: normal heartbeat |
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HEMOSTASIS STEPS
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•Hemostasis involves 4 phases
1) vascular spasms 2) platelet plug formation 3) coagulation 4) clot dissolution |
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Innate Immunity
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one is born with. Characteristic to a particular species.
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Adaptive Immunity
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develops after birth.
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Types of Adaptive Immunity and Examples
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a. Natural: gotten through contact with disease or passage of antibodies. Non deliberate exposure.
Divided into i. Active: Contact with disease as a result host produces antibodies ii. Passive: Receiving antibodies through mother b. Artificial: Aquired through vaccine, or antidote. Deliberate exposure to antigen. i. Active: Vaccine ii. Passive: Immune Serum. protective material developed in another individual’s immune system and given to previously nonimmune individual E.g Snake poinson antidote |
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Two main immune system cells
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Phagocytes (Macrophages, Monocytes)
Leukocytes (B and T cells) |
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Development of Cells that Make antibodies
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B Cells responsible for making antibodies
Stem cells develop into immature B cells (happens in liver and bone marrow) Immature b cells Migrate from bone marrow to lymphatic tissue/nodes Immature B cell becomes in contact with an antigen. It then becomes an activated B cell and starts dividing by mitosis. It forms plasma cells and Memory cells. Plasma Cells: produce large quantities of antibodies |
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Process of ingesting and destroying foreign cells
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Phagocytosis, done by macrophages (who come from monocytes)
take in and destroy waste and foreign material.As phagocytes work, they release substances cytokines that Raise body temperature, Stimulates phagocytes and Increases metabolism |
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Interferon
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induced at an early stage in viral infection – before the specific immune system has had time to respond.
Allow communication between cells to trigger the protective defenses of the immune System that eradicate pathogens or tumors It pre-warns nearby cells to prevent viral replication; Infected cell can warn neighboring cells of a viral presence by releasing interferon |
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Inflamation Process
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Steps in inflamation:
1. Heat: damaged cells relase histamine, to attract granulocytes, macrophages and mast cells. Blood vessels dilate. 2. Redness: Epithelial cells contract, increase permeability, allow granulocytes and macrophages reach irritant. 3. Swelling: fluid from blood plasma leaks and begins to clot, limiting the infection area but causing swelling 4. Pain: Mix of exudate, pathogens and destroyed tissue cells forms pus. The inflammation causes pressure on nerve endings causing pain. |
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Complement Fixation
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Group of e proteins normally present in blood in inactive state
helps, or “complements”, the ability of antibodies to clear pathogens from an organism. Activated when antibodies encounter and attach to cells Makes holes in the plasma membrane of the foreign antigen. Causes cell lysis by permitting entry of sodium and water It is part of the immune system called the innate immune system However, it can be recruited and brought into action by the adaptive immune system |
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T Cells
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Produce cell-mediated immunity,
inmmune response that does not involve antibodies or complement. involves realease of cytokines as a response to an antigen a Stem cells from bone marrow migrate to thymus gland, Stem cells develop into T cells T cells migrate chiefly to lymph nodes. T cells develop into sensitized T cells. Occurs when antigen binds to T cell’s surface proteins |
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Long Term Immunity
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Happens when Memory B and T cells remember an antigen and immediately have a response. After being exposed to disease, lasts a lifetime
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T Cell that Attacks Antigen Directly
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Cytotoxic T Cell:
Recognizes virus infected cell because infected cell has peptide and + MHC in membrane cell Cytotoxic cell releases cytotoxins and perforin (makes holes) and Apoptosis (cell death happens). Cytotoxic cell moves on to kill other infected cells |
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Inmunoglobulins/ Antibodies
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•Protein with specific combining sites
•Manufactored by B cells (plasma cells) •Used to identify and neutrolizae antigens •Carried in blood plasma in gamma globulin. •Capable of binding specifically to an antigen |
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What cells combine with antigen to present them to T cells?
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Macrophage ingests foreign antigen and a phagocytic vesicle is formed
Macrophage shows an antigen fragment with MHC proteins to the T helper cell The T helper cell, binds its receptor with the antigen fragment and becomes an activated T helper cell The activated t helper cell produces interlukin which stimulates other leukocytes |
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Swelling in Inflamation caused by?
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Histamine dilates blood vessels and makes the vessel walls abnormally permeable.
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What non specific lymphocyte kills virus or cancer cells?
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Natural Killer Cells (NK Cells)
Type of cytotoxic lymphocyte They kill cells by releasing small cytoplasmic granules of proteins called perforin and granzyme that cause the target cell to die by apoptosis. Can recognize body cells with abnormal membranes (cancer, virus-infected cell) Activated in response to interferons or macrophage-derived cytokines Serve to contain viral infections while the adaptive immune response is generating antigen-specific cytotoxic T cells |
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Interlukins
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Interleukins are the cytokines that act specifically as mediators between leucocytes. Relased by activated T cells combines with macrophage
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collection of dead skin cells, white blood cells and Fluid
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Pus
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Lymphocytes that Suppress Inmuno Response
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• Suppressor (Regulatory) T cells. Release chemicals to suppress the activity of T and B cells. Stop the immune response to prevent uncontrolled activity
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Antibody - Antigen Reaction
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Antibody – Antigen reaction: the antibody made by plasma cell matches a part of an antigen. It is like a key and lock model.
Sometimes Once the antigen – antibody match up, the complement proteins are activated. |
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Aritificial Passive Immunity
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Immune Serum. protective material developed in another individual’s immune system and given to previously nonimmune individual E.g Snake poinson antidote.
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Monocytes and Macrophages form what?
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Reticuloendothelial System
Part of the immune system Consists of the phagocytic cells located in reticular connective tissue. monocytes and macrophages, Non specific Immunity, 2nd line of defense These are the cells responsible for destroying worn-out blood cells, bacteria, cancer cells and other harmful foreign substances Examples: Kupffer cells: specialized macrophages located in the liver Dust cells: specialized macrophages located in the lungs |
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Cytokines
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The cytokines are a part of the innate immune system, produced by phagocytic cells, and cause the increase in the thermoregulatory set-point in the hypothalamus. Cause Fever
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MHC
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molecules on the outer plasma membrane of all cells; help the immune system distinguish self from nonself. T cells recognize antigens only when combined with these proteins.
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Spleen
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• Largest lymphoid organ
• Reserviour of blood (approx 1 pint) • Contains phagocytes and lymphocytes • Cleanses blood: Filtration • Phagocytosis of bacteria • Destroys worn out RBC • Produces RBCs before birth |
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Tonsils
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3 masses of lymphoid tissue around the openings of the mouth and throat
1st line of defense from exterior Move contaminants from inhaled/swallowed material Palatine tonsils (“the tonsils”), Pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids), and Lingual tonsils |
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Thymus
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•Located in mediastinum, deep to sternum
•Very active before birth and in infancy •Where Maturation of T-lymphocytes (t-cells) ocurrs •Secretes hormone called thymosin which promoted lymphocyte growth •Lymphoid tissue of thymys is largely replaced as we age by fat in the process called involution |
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Antigen
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Any molecule that triggers an immune response.
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ig's
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IgG - Crosses Placenta
IgE - Alergic reaction |
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FETAL CIRCULATION
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1. Ductus arteriosus
protects lungs against circulatory overload. allows the right ventricle to strengthen . hi pulmonary vascular resistance, low pulmonary blood flow. carries mostly med oxygen saturated blood 2. Ductus venosus . fetal blood vessel connecting the umbilical vein to the IVC. blood flow regulated via sphincter. carries mostly hi oxygenated blood 3. Foramen ovale. shunts highly oxygenated blood from right atrium to left atrium |
