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79 Cards in this Set

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What is Acrolect
Language variety closest to the standard english found most commonly in the carribean. Continued contact with standard english results in decreolisation where stand english and the lexifer language come together to form a new language variety. Basilect is most divergent and mesolect is intermediate divergent.
What is Adjacency Pairs
Involved with 'turn taking'. People have shared cultural knowledge of the type of
'script' used in particular kinds of speech events. Intuitive knowledge of English
helps with knowing how to manage turn taking.
● Adjacency pairs are two sequential utterances which tend to occur together.
Question and answer is the obvious pair. A considerable amount of conversation is
based on adjacency pairs where particular kinds of utterances and response tend to
occur together. Eg use of question-answer, greeting-greeting, invitationacceptance/
rejection, complaint-denial, request-acceptance/denial..

Linked Terms: Turn Taking
What is Basilect
Decreolised variety of langaage that is most divergent from a lexifer language.
Basilect used in Guyana and is associated with family and local identity.
In Trinidad and Tobago it is common for code switching between basilect/Acrolect/Mesolect Varieties
What is Borrowing
When one language adopts or absorbs features or words from another language.

Example: Amateur or Entrepreneur from the French Language.
What is Centrifugual Forces
The tendency of language varieties to diverge from a standard variety to a regional variation. Leads to a breakdown of a centralised hierachy.

Linked Term: Centripedal Forces
What is Centripedal Forces
Tendency of a language varieties to converge towards a standard language asserting influence of a national language. Can lead to globalisation.

Example: People in multi-national companies who are required to communicate in the business language of English.

Linked Terms: Centrifugal Forces
What is code-switching
Switching from one language to another in conversation.

Example: speaking in english on the phone to a hindu relatative but code-switching to hindu to convey familarity or better describe a word that may not have a direct english comparision.

Linked Terms: Styleshifting
What is Collocation
The tendency for two or more words to occur within a short distance of each other.

Examples: Coffee cup, table, shop.

Normally found in condordance lines from a concordancer that enables us to analyse frequently occuring words in a given text or texts.

Linked Terms: Corpus, Corpus Linguisitics
What is Communicative Competence
Set of skills that need to be acquired in order to know when to speak, variety of language to use, socially appropriate terms of phrase and turn-taking. As well as Linguistic Competence/Performance
What are concordance Lines
A concordance is the extraction of all instances of a particular word. The key word is shown in a centre column with its co-occuring words to the left and rignt.
Concordance lines are used by linguists to show patterns in language. Comparing different usages of the same word, analysing word frequencies, analysing key words, phrases, idioms and collocations.

Linked Terms: Collocations
What is a content word
A word such as a noun, verb or an adjective that has a lexical meaning or carries information, rather than indicating a function.
What is Contrastive Rhetoric
Different ways which linguistic resources and traditions vary cross-culturally such as the use of grammar and syntax.
Other aspects of cultural difference relate to rhetoricall styles and discourse structures that are that are traditionally valued within a culture.

Linked Terms: Rhetoric Styles, Discourse Structure
What is Convergence
To come closer or converge towards a standard language so that social distance is reduced.

Linked Terms: Audience Design, Accommodation Theory, Dialect Levelling, Divergence
What is Corpus Linguistics
The study of language expressed in computerised collections of natuarally occuring language data in the form of written and spoken texts.

Linked Terms: Descriptive/Prescreptive Grammar
What is a Creole
When a pidgin becomes a mother tongue it is referred to as a creole.

Example: Tok Pisin Papua New Guinea developed from a pidgin to a creole.

Linked Terms: Pidgin, Lingua Franca
What is Critical Discourse Analysis
The study of language in terms of language/power. Ways social and polictical domination are reproduced by text and talk.
Applied Linguist Norman Fairclough (1995) described analysis of speeches using computational methods.

Example: New Labour, New Language speech

Linked Terms: Conversational Analysis
What is Divergence
Speakers linguistically less like each other when they want to emphasise their distinctiveness or to increase social distance.

Linked Terms: Convergence, Accomodation Theory, Audience Design
What is Emergent Liiteracy
How a child becomes literate from birth. Children discover how reading and writing is defined by their communities in everyday interaction.
Emergent Literacy can be represented by recogonition of words that rhyme, scribbles that look like writing and pointing out signs like a macdonalds logo.
What is Estuary English
Dialect of english spoken in south east of england, especially along the thames and its estuaries.
Mixture of non-regional and south eastern pronunciation which may replace received pronunciation in accent levelling.

Linked Terms: Old English, Received Pronunciation
What is Face
A persons public self image. Loss of face, pre-empting face saving move apologising in case your performance in an interview is not upto par.
Positive Face - to be liked or admired through compliments or expressions of approval.
Negative Face - not to be imposed upon.
Hedging expressions - kind of, maybe. Diffierent cultures may stress one kind of politenness more than others.

Linked Terms: Face Threatening Acts
What is a face threatening act
Face Threatening Act is an utterance that may not respect others face. Example: How could you be so bloody Stupid.
Face Protecting Act is softening the force of your words. Example: There appears to have been an accident here.

Linked Terms: Face, Relative Status, Social Distance
What is Field
Field refers to the topic of conversation and is one of three registers in the systematic functional language for analysing conversations.

Linked Terms: Systemic Functional Linguistics, Mode, Tenor, Genre, Register
What is Focusing
Reduction in variation of form in speech communiities without government intervention.
A focused linguistic community has a strong sense of norms acquired through intensive contact.
Focusing Agencies: Close Daily Interaction, Education System, Sense of common cause, Presence of powerful model.A prestige group leader who uses a certain language variety.

Linked Terms: Dialect Levelling
What is Foregrounding
Drawing attention to some property of the language itself. Achieved by focusing on sounds, grammar or meaning.

Example: repetition of words in Poetry, 'Tyger, Tyger' Breaking english language rules.

Linked Terms: Stylistics
What is Formulaic Speech
AKA Pre-fabricated chunks of speech, ie 'knock it off'.
Easily remembered by learners. Learners of additional language can learn inappropriate phrases.
What is a function word
closed class words which do not carry meaning - prepositions, pronouns, auxillary verbs, conjunctions and articles.

Linked Term: content word
What is Genre
Class or classes of communicative events which have formal or informal style, specific roles played by its participants, language used, who initiates the conversation.

Linked Terms: Discourse Communities
What is Hedging
Used to lessen the impact of an utterance, ie 'kind of', ' I suppose that'.
Important in maintaining 'face needs' of yourself and others.
Robin Lakoff suggested that women use hedging more as it is the less dominant approach.
Hedges like 'it would seem that' are used in academic discourse.

Linked Terms: Positive/Negative Face
What is Hetroglossia
Bakhtin (1981) to describe multiple voices within a text, which take the form of direct quotation, press releases/statements.

Example: News Articles - writers voice aswell as quotes and extracts from police statements embedded in the text.

Linked Terms: Pre-fabricated Text, Embedding
What are Homonyms
Lexical items that have the same form whether in speech , writing or both but different meanings. They include both homographs and homophones.

Linked Terms: Homophones, Homographs
What is a Homograph
Lexical items that have the same written form but different meanings.

Example: 'lead'

Linked Terms: Homophone, Homonym
What is a Homophone
Lexical items that have the same spoken form but different meanings.

Example: 'Blue', 'Blew'

Linked Terms: Homographs, Homonyms
What is Hypercorrection
A tendency noted by William Labov for lower-middle-class speakers
to maximise their use of certain pronunciations in more formal
reading situations where they paid most attention. He believed that
this was because they knew the ‘correct’ way of speaking and
therefore were more careful to use it.Example: 'Bath'

Linked Terms: Received Prouniciation
What is Iconcity
word that relates to the object or process it represents. can be symbolic, word toilet. can be indexical, smoke is a sign of fire, can be iconic, sign of a ladies toilet.

Linked Terms: Symbolic, Indexical
What is an ideal reader
the created reader who understands and agrees with the message being created.

Example: Advertising telling your reader they lack something potentially makes the message more seductive.
Actual readers may not necessarily agree with the message being created.

Linked Terms: Actual Reader, Narrator
What is ideational/Interpersonal meaning
ideational meaning - information and ideas expressed. interpersonal meaning - degree of friendliness or status between speakers
Theorist Halliday (1987) - lanugage has a dual function. relationships frame the content of what is said, but the content of what is said can build or change relationship.

Linked Terms: Academic discourse, discourse community
What is the IPA
International Phonetic Alphabet are phonetic symbols based on latin/greek devised by the International Phonetic Association as a standardised representation of actual sounds of spoken language.
to provide one symbol for each distinctive sound also includes a classification of the 8 primary vowels. More accuarate transcription of sound than is possible with alphabet language alone. in a language like english in which a typical accent contains about 45 phonemes. Used in dictionaries to indicate pronunciation.
What is Intertexuality/Hybridity
The shaping of texts' meanings by other texts. It can refer to an author’s
borrowing and transformation of a prior text or to a reader’s referencing of
one text in reading another. ● As Mikhail Bakhtin states, all texts have some relationship with other texts
that have preceded them.
● Some examples of intertextuality in literature include:
● Carol-Ann Duffy poem 'Havisham' and Dickens' Great Expectations
What is Language Variety
Variations of a language charaterised by distinct vocabularies, speech patterns and grammatical features includes regional dialects defined by class, age, gender, social group or individuality.

Linked Terms: Centrifugal forces, Accent, Dialect
What is Lexical Density
Texts which have a high proportion of lexical items compared to grammatical items are said to
have a high lexical density. Written texts are likely to have a higher lexical density than spoken
texts.

Linked Terms: Nominalisation, Function words
What is Linguistic Imperialsism
Phrase created by Phillipson (1992) which suggested that the promotion of
English has led to the neglect of other languages.

Linked Terms: Standardisation
What is a literary cannon
Very best literature which embodied moral and cultural values of society.

F R Leavis (1948) believed that only a small cultured minority were equiped to fully understand literature and it was their role to uphold the moral and cultural values embedded in the best of it.

Linked Terms: Literacy Practices
What is Marketisation
Marketisation - The extension of English employed for marketing purposes into
other areas of language use.
● 'Advertising language’ is seen to be crossing over into the domain of ‘information

Linked Terms: Border Crossing, Informalisation
What is Metalinguistic Awareness
The ability to think about and reflect on language itself. An ability more sophisticated than the
ability to produce language, eg the ability to tell jokes is an extremely sophisticated form of
verbal behaviour requiring both knowledge of language and the ability to identify and
manipulate the mental state of another person. (The underlined is an example of metalinguistic
awareness) (Bancroft)

Linked Terms: Metalinguistic Knowledge
What are minimal Pairs
In Phoneme theory the term given to two words
that are differentiated by one sound, as in gap
and cap.

Linked Terms: Homophone, Phoneme
What is Mode
the symbolic organization of the text, rhetorical modes (persuasive, expository,
didactic, etc); the channel of communication, such as spoken/written, monologic/dialogic, +/-
visual contact, computer-mediated communication/telephone/F2F, etc.

Linked Terms: Field, Tenor
What is a Morpheme
A morpheme is defined as the smallest unit of a language that carries a meaning.
● Look at the word PLAY-ER. Two morphemes. –ER means roughly ‘one who
does...’
● Play is a word in its own right whereas -er is not: it always gets added to something.
A morpheme that can stand on its own as a word is known as a free morpheme. A
morpheme that cannot do this but must be added to something is known as a bound
morpheme. A bound morpheme is accompanied by a hyphen (eg -ed or -s) to show
that it must be linked to another morpheme.

Linked Terms: Phoneme
What is Multimodality
Texts which contain more than one medium for communication ie pictures, words and sound are multimodal.

Linked Terms: Stylistics, Visual English
What is Nominalisation
The practice of replacing a verb with a noun eg changing ‘if you invest’ to
‘investment

Linking Terms: Lexical Density
Non Verbal Communication
Process of communicating intention without actually saying it.Evidenced in voice quality, speaking style, prosody and intonation
What is Old English
English spoken in England during 5th to 12th centuries by Anglo Saxons.
Differs from modern English in vocabulary, word meaning and spelling. Also
contains letters not found in Modern English. Differs in pronunciation and
grammar and ways it is used.

Linked Terms: Estuary English
What is Orthography
The way a language is spelled. For instance, the letter (orthographic
symbol) ‘g’ can represent a different sound according to its context (gone,
large)

Linked Term: Internationl Phonetic Language
What is Overextension
Term used to describe when a child overextends a word to refer to objects
that lie outside the word’s normal range of application for adults. For
example, a child may use the word ‘dog’ to refer to any animal with four
legs until it learns the correct names for the different animals eg cows,
horses, sheep etc.

Linked Terms: Underextesion
What is a Phoneme
Phonemes are the distinctive sounds of a language and conventionally appear inside
diagonal brackets / /. Sometimes they are identical or very similar to letters –
sometimes not. The important thing to remember is that they represent a particular
distinctive sound.
● The two main categories of phonemes are vowels and consonants. The focus is on
sounds rather than appearances.

Linked Terms: Morphemes
What is Phonics Debate
Debate on the effectiveness of two different teaching methods for reading.
What is a Pidgin
A pidgin is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication
between two or more groups who do not share a common language, in situations such
as trade. Pidgins usually have no native speakers, but are learned as second
languages, and they usually have low prestige with respect to other languages.
● David Crystal (1987, p 334) explains: ‘They are the native language of no-one, but
they are nonetheless a main means of communication for millions of people, and a
major focus of interest to those who study the way languages change.’

Linked Terms: Creole, Lingua Franca, Standardisation
What is Polysemy
A word that has more than one meaning. The meaning is understood because of the context of the sentence. English has many polysemous words as a result of attempts to enrich the language
What is Pragmatic Function
A general term to include how context of a situation adds to the meaning of an utterance.
One of three areas of language play identified by Cook.
● Linguistic form focuses on the look or sound of words and includes
patterning, repetition and emphasis.
● Semantics focuses on meaning in language and includes ambiguity and the
inversion of language/reality.
● Pragmatics focuses on factors affecting language choices such as the
creation of solidarity, enjoyment and/or value.

Linked Terms: Discourse community/Strategy
What is a Rank Scale
A rank scale is a hierachy of the constituents of grammar.
Morphemes combine to form words, Words combine to form phrases, phrases combine to form clauses, clauses combine to form sentences.
What is Register
Defined by Michael Halliday as ‘variation according to the use’ in contrast to
dialect, which he defined as ‘variety according to the user’.
● Register dimensions are
● field (linked to Ideational)
● tenor (linked to Interpersonal)
● mode (linked to textual)
What is Repertoire
The range of linguistic behaviours or language systems that allow children to
style shift or code switch. Children need to acquire a repertoire of language
to develop communicative competence. The idea of repertoire is also linked
to concepts of identity (who I am, who I identify with).

Linked Terms: Code-Switching, Communicative Competence
What is Semantic Broadening/Narrowing
Semantic broadening
● The term used for when a word’s meaning becomes wider over time. For
example the word ‘lure’ used to mean the object a falconer used to attract a
hawk but it is now used to mean ‘attract’ in the general sense.
● Semantic narrowing
● The opposite of semantic broadening, it means when the meaning of a word
becomes narrower over time.
What is Semiotic Systems
A system of signs eg road signs and adverts are
semiotic systems.

Linked Terms: Visual English
What is Social Network
The social networks that a person belongs to will mean they are either uniplex (they
are unrelated to each other) or multiplex (the people you work with are the same as
those you also socialise with).

Linked Terms: Discourse Community
What is Sociolect
A social dialect or variety of speech specific to a section of society. British teenagers adopt a sociolect which currently includes such phrases as 'and I'm
like, and she's like' ,

Linked Term: Dialect
What is Sociolinguistic Variable
A linguistic variable which is sensitive to social or stylistic context. Factors such as social networks, regional background, age, class, gender and ethnic group.

Example: how new zealanders pronounce the /t/ words in writer, better.

Linked Terms: Stylistic/Context variation, Audience Design
What is a Speech Act/Event
Speech act
● A short speech sequence such as giving instructions to a pupil.
● Speech event
● A series of sentences that create a single event such as a business
negotiation.


Linked Term; Initial Response Feedback
What is Standard English
Form of english that in its grammar, syntax, vocabulary and spelling is agreed norm of usage codified in dictionaries and grammars'

Linked Terms: Prescriptive Grammar, Received Pronunication.
What is Standardisation
The period in which modern English arose was characterised by fundamental
changes in the structure of society. The key linguistic process associated with these
changes is standardisation: English was transformed from a vernacular language into
one with a standardised variety that could be identified with England as a nation
state.
● The four main processes of standardisation are:
● Selection: of an existing variety, usually that of the most powerful group in society.
● Codification: loss of some variability, with the establishment of norms of vocabulary
and preferred grammatical forms. In the written form, includes standardised spelling.
● Elaboration: development of new specialised words, phrases and other resources to
cope with new purposes.
● Implementation: the distribution of texts; through formal education and other means
encourage the prescriptive promotion of the standard variety.

Linked Terms: Language Planning
What is Stress Timed Language
Language where the stressed syllables are at regular intervals and unstressed syllabables shorten to fit this rhythm.
Stress timed languages can be compared to syllable timed ones, where each syllable takes roughly the same amount of time.
English & German are stress timed languages, whilst Spanish & Japenese are Syllable timed.
What is Styleshifting
Where codeswitching is changing from one language to another, style shifting is
changing the style of speech. For example a teenager might speak to a teacher in one
style, and then address his friends in a completely different style. Accent,
vocabulary and form of speech can all change.
● Another example of style shifting is where an adult might speak to a young child or
baby in a completely different way from the way they would speak to an older child
or adult. Even fairly young children have been seen to moderate their language into
a different style when speaking to babies or children younger than themselves.

Linked Term: Code switching
What is Synomymy
Words or phrases with the same or very similar meanings ie mistake/error.

Linked Terms: Hyponomy (inclusion), Antonymy (opposite)
What is Tenor
who is taking part; the social roles and relationships of participant, the status and roles
of the participants

Example: Choice of grammar/vocabulary between a doctor and a patient

Linked Terms: register, mode, field
What are Terms of Address
Ways in which individuals address each other, depend upon:
● differences in status between speakers
● how well they know each other
● formality of situation
● cultural and linguistic context

Example: Doctor, Ms, Love, Sophie
What is Transcription
Term used to indicate that the text is transcribed speech, of which there are
two conventions:
● Standard. Where the speech is transcribed sequentially like a play script.
● Column. Where each speaker’s words are transcribed into separate columns

Linked Terms: Conversational Analysis
What is Transitition Relevance Place
Theorist: Sacks et al
● Parts of a conversation where the speaker pauses or invites
the other person to comment – usually at a grammatically
correct place within the utterance.
● Breaking in before a transition is an 'interruption.'
● Related : conversation structure : openings, phatic communication, social binding, dialogic,
closings, face, politeness, relative status, social distance/solidarity,transition relevance
place,interruptions

Linked Terms: Turn-Taking, Adjacency Pairs
What is turn-taking
Conversation Analysis– features that need to be accounted for in a model of
conversational turn-taking
● Speaker turn occurs and recurs
● Only one person usually speaks at a time
● People will take turns which vary in length – means of identifying when a speaker
has completed a turn
● Places where more than one person talks simultaneously are common but don’t last
● Transitions made without gap or overlap
● Order in which people talk vary

Linked Terms: TRP, Adjacency Pairs
What is Vectors
Basically lines which lead the eye, particularly in cartoons and other visual texts
● Visual transitivity can be seen in the relationships between vectors. These vectors
can be formed by objects or parts of objects (arm, leg, gun, branch) or by angles set
up in the image, or by such elements as the direction of the person's eye.
● Vectors play an important part in image transitivity about who is doing what to
whom. You can tell who is acting and who is being acted upon.
● Vectors are instrumental in visual narratives to show a chain of events unfolding and
to signpost the narrative path for the reader.

Linked Terms: Visual English
What is Voice
In articulation - Expiratiation of air through vibrating vocal chords used in the production of sound.
In verb forms - Active/Passive/Middle
In Personal - Academic Identity
In narrative/advertising - Actual reader, Ideal reader, actual writer, narrator