Topic 5: Skill In Sport

Front 1

5.2.1 Describe a simple model of information processing.

Back 1

Information processing is the system by which we take information from our surrounding environment, use it to make a decision and then produce a response: input–decision-making–output.

All the approaches are only models. Input andoutput are assessable/observable, but thedecision-making process can only be speculation.

Front 2

5.2.2 Describe Welford’s model of information processing.

Back 2

Welford’s model (1968) of information processing includes (make sure you have some understanding of what is happening in each component)

(i) sense organs

(ii) perception

(iii) short-term memory

(iv) long-term memory

(v) decision making

(vi) effectorcontrol

(vii) feedback.

Front 3

5.2.3 Outline the componentsassociated with sensory input.

Back 3

Exteroceptors: provide information about the external environment, like touch, pressure, temperature, light, sound, taste, smell etc.

Proprioceptors: provide information about the internal environment such as the position and posture of our body in space. They sense stimuli from the muscles, tendons and the joints as well from the vestibular apparatus.

Interoceptors: also provide information about the internal environment including sensing blood pressure, plasma osmolarity, blood glucose concentration or the degree of stretching of the urinary bladder.

Front 4

5.2.4 Explain the signal-detectionprocess.

Back 4

The signal-detection process takes place in the perception stage of information processing and is the process by which the sensory input is given meaning i.e. interprets the information and identifies the elements that are important e.g. whether the fact that the goalkeeper has come off the goal line can be exploited. This recognition and interpretation relies on previous experience and the memory of that experience to help make a decision of what to do. Perception consists of THREE elements:

DETECTION – this is the process by which the brain identifies that a stimulus is present. In sport there is usually more than one stimulus – it is vital that we attend to the correct stimulus. Beginners often attend to the wrong stimulus, and that is why their decision-making is often poor. COMPARISON – is what happens when we attend to something we have sensed. The brain processes this information by comparing it with previous experiences that have been stored in our memory.

RECOGNITION – this occurs when we find a match in our memory of a similar stimulus. The information is then perceived.

Factors that affect signal detection:

- background noise

- intensity of the stimulus

- efficiency of the sense organs

- early signal detection

- practice at improving signal detection

Front 5

5.2.5 Distinguish between thecharacteristics of short-termsensory store, short-term memoryand long-term memory.

Back 5

Use the comparison table constructed in class (an attachment found in Lesson 5) that distinguished in terms of capacity, duration and retrieval.

Front 6

5.2.6 Discuss the relationshipbetween selective attention andmemory.

Back 6

Selective attention (SA) operates in the short-term sensory store (STSS). Only the relevantinformation is passed to the short-term memory(STM) where it is held for several seconds. SAensures that information overload does not occurand prevents confusion as the brain would notbe able to cope with streams of information. Afiltering mechanism operates, which separates therelevant information from the irrelevant (noise)information so that athletes concentrate on onecue or stimulus (for example, the ball, position of player in a game of tennis) to the exclusion ofothers. SA is very important when accuracy or fastresponses are required and can be improved bylearning through past experience and interactionwith long-term memory.

Front 7

5.2.7 Compare different methods ofmemory improvement - ASSOCIATION

Back 7

Association: e.g. good coaches and teachers always ensure that new learning is linked to what players already know

Front 8

5.2.7 Compare different methods ofmemory improvement - BREVITY

Back 8

Brevity: e.g. giving a learner a small amount of information at a time to avoid overload

Front 9

5.2.7 Compare different methods ofmemory improvement - CHUNKING

Back 9

Chunking: e.g. learners can hold more in the short-term memory if the information is “chunked”, instead of being presented as individual items

Front 10

5.2.7 Compare different methods ofmemory improvement - CLARITY

Back 10

Clarity: e.g. avoid trying to learn or teach two similar but distinct items in the same session, as the memory of one may interfere with the memory of the other

Front 11

5.2.7 Compare different methods of memory improvement - ORGANISATION

Back 11

Organisation: e.g. we remember more easily if we organise the way in which we are to learn and ensure that the information is meaningful

Front 12

5.2.7 Compare different methods ofmemory improvement - PRACTICE

Back 12

Practice: related to rehearsal

–practicing new things shuttles information between short and long term memory

–Improves ‘memory trace’ making information more readily available.

Front 13

5.2.7 Compare different methods ofmemory improvement - REHEARSAL

Back 13

Rehearsal: repeating information over and over again so that it goes into LTM

Front 14

5.2.8 Define the term response time.

Back 14

Response Time = Reaction Time + Movement Time

Reaction Time: time elapsed for the onset of a stimulus to the start of the response

Movement Time: time it takes to carry out the motor aspect of the performance

Front 15

5.2.9 Outline factors that determineresponse time.

Back 15

- Age

- Body temperature

- Gender

- Health status

- Length of Neural Pathways

- Number stimulus -response couplings (Hick's Law)

- Personality (extroverts faster than introverts)

- State of alertness, arousal, and motivation

Front 16

5.2.10 Evaluate the concept of the psychological refractory period (PRP).

Back 16

Single channel theory (Welford) proposes that the brain finds it more difficult to process information when one stimulus is closely followed by a second stimulus. The delay in being able to respond to the second of two closely spaced stimuli is termed the psychological refractory period (PRP).

In sport, player X can use the concept of PRP to their own advantage by faking the first stimulus and performing on the second so that their opponent's reaction time is increased thus giving player X a time advantage.

Front 17

5.2.11 Describe a motor programme.

Back 17

Motor Programme: A set of muscle commands that allow movements to be performed without any peripheral feedback.

For example: hitting a tennis ball, catching a netball, doing a somersault

Executive Motor Programme: a number of motor programmes put together.

For example: triple jump (hop, skip, jump). A number of executive motor programmes in quick succession can also become one large executive motor programme. For example, a gymnastics routine.

Motor programmes are made up of subroutines. For example, whilst the serve in tennis would be considered a motor programme, it is made up of subroutines such as the player's stance, throw, swing, weight transfer, strike, follow through.

Front 18

5.2.12 Compare motor programmes from both open and closed loopperspectives.

Back 18

Open loop motor programme: motor programmes put into action and performed without feedback being used to control movement.

For example: a golf swing, a baseball swing in response to a fast pitch, a cricket swing in response to a fast bowl or a punch in boxing).

Closed loop motor programme: Motor programmes which occur at a pace that allows for kinaesthetic feedback (internal) to make adjustments.

For example: a baseball swing in response to a slower pitch or a tennis racquet swing in response to a slow serve.

The first to describe how we use closed loop control was Jack Adams (1971). He argued that as we learn a skill, we develop what he called the perceptual trace. The perceptual trace is memory for the feel of successful past movements. Once we have developed the perceptual trace, we can compare the trace with the feel of the ongoing movement. For example, an experienced basketballer will know if a shot feels right as it is happening. While the perceptual trace controls an already ongoing movement, the selection and initiation of the movement is under the control of what Adams called the memory trace.

Front 19

5.2.13 Outline the role of feedback ininformation processing models.

Back 19

Feedback: refers to information resulting from an action or response. Feedback can be used to enhance a current or future performance by making necessary physical adjustments to maximise success.

Front 20

5.2.13 Outline the role of feedback in information processing models - INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK, KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS (KR), KNOWLEDGE OF PERFORMANCE (KP).

Back 20

Feedback can be intrinsic or extrinsic.

Intrinsic Feedback: information available to the performer without outside help. For example, through use of their own senses they know the results of their actions without needing anyone or thing to tell them.

Extrinsic Feedback: information provided for the performer by someone or something else. For example, a coach, teacher, stopwatch or tape measure. This feedback can be concurrent (been given during performance), or terminal (given after completion of the performance).

There are two major forms of feedback, knowledge of results and knowledge of performance.

Knowledge of results (KR): post-response information concerning the outcome of the action. For example, the long jumper's result was 6.91m

Knowledge of Performance (KP): post-response information concerning the nature of the movement. For example, how the performance felt by the performer or how it looked from a coaches point-of-view.

Feedback can also be negative or positive

Positive: feedback that focuses on what the performer did well followed by prescriptive feedback about ways in which they can improve.

Negative: feedback that concentrates on errors in performance followed by prescriptive feedback. May involve feedback like "You got it wrong, you did this and shouldn't have". Can be demotivating particularly for beginners.

Front 21

5.2.14 Outline the role of feedback with the learning process.

Back 21

The role of feedback on the learning process can impact:

Adaptation of performance: feedback can allow a performer to bring about changes in performance that can improve learning.

Motivation: an appropriate amount of praise from someone a performer perceives as being important can provide motivation to achieve the best possible learning.

Punishment: feedback can provide an unpleasant response designed to prevent unwanted performance.

Reinforcement of learning: the provision of knowledge of results and knowledge of performance can reinforce correct learning