Thinking Critically Chapt 1 Myers 8Th Ed.

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hindsight bias

Back 1

the tendency to believe after learning an outcome that one would have foreseen it. (I knew it all along)

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what is the scientific attitude

Back 2

curious, skeptical and humble scrutiny of ideas/theories.

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What is critical thinking

Back 3

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions, tather it examines assumptions,discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions.

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theory

Back 4

an explanation using and integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations

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hypothesis

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a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

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operational definition

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a statement of the procedures used to define research variables

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replication

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repeating the essence of a research study usually with different participants in different situations to see whether the basic findinf extends to other participants and circumstances.

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the scientific method

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a self correcting process for asking question and observing nature's answer. uses theory, hypothesis, orperational definition, replication to generate or refine or refute theories.

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what makes a theory useful

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effectively organizes a renge of relf reports and observations

implies clear predictions that anyone can use to check the theory or derive practical applications

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case study

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an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

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what are the advantages and disadvantages of using case studies to study behaviour

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advantage-suggest hypothesis for further study. show what can happen.
disadvantages-individual may be atypical
can lead to mistaken judgments and false conclusions

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survey

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a technique for ascertaining the self reported attitudes or behaviors of people usually by questioning a representative random sample of them

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false consensus effect

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the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

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population

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all cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study

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random sample

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a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

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naturalistic observation

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observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

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what are the disadvantages and advantages of using naturalistic observation

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discribes behaviour does not explain it. but can expand our understanding and lead to hypotheses that can be studied by other methods

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correlation

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how strongly two things are related

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positive correlation

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two sets of scores rise or fall together

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negative correlation

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two sets of scores one rises while the other falls. or vice versa

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scatter plot

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each point on a graph plots the value of two variables.

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how do correlation and causeation relate

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correlation indicates the possibility of a cause effect relationship but it does not prove causation. There could be other factors involved or causation could move either direction.

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illusory correlation

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the perception of relationship where none exists

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experiment

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research method-manipulate one or more factors(independent variables) to observe the efffect on some behavior or mental process(the dependent variable) by random assignment of participants the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors

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double blind procedure

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both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participant is control or variable

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placebo

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results caused by expectations alone, an effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, assumed to be an active agent.

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experimental condition

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the part of experiment that exposes participants to the treatment(independant variable)

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control condition

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part of experiment that in control, serves as a comparison for evaluation the effect of treatment

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random assignment

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assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, minimizing preexistiong differences btw those assigned to the different groups

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independent variable

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the factor that is manipulated the variable whose effect is being studied

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dependent variable

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the variable that may change in respose to manipulations of the independent variable

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mode

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the most frequently occurring score in a distribution. (measure of central tendancy)

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mean

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the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores(measure of central tendancy)most affected by extreme scores.

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median

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the middle score in a destribution, half the scores are above it and half are below it.

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how can bar graphs misrepresent the data

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by messing with the scale and range of numbers on graph(measure of central tendancy)

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what are two measures of variation

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standard deviation-most useful
measures how far each score is away from the mean,squares it, takes its sum, sqare root of its average. lets you know if scores are packed closely together or spaced far apart.
range-the gaps between the highest and lowest score.

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when is it safe to generalize form a sample

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representative samples better than biased samples.
less variable observations are more reliable that those that are more variable
more cases are better than fewer.

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statistical significance

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when the sample averages are reliable and the difference between them is relatively large

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culture

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the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitides, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

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does behaviour depend on culture

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Yes although there are many things that are also common across cultures. ie. dyslexia, principles of grammar and smile s or frowns, etc.