Thinking And Language, Chapt 10 Myers 8Th Edition

Front 1

cognition

Back 1

the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating

Front 2

concept

Back 2

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people, ie. chair

Front 3

category hierarcheis

Back 3

we organize concepts into category hierarchies to simplify things further.

Front 4

what are the two ways we form concepts

Back 4

by definition-all three sided geometric forms are triangles

by developing prototypes-a mental image or best example that incorporates all the features we associate with a category.

Front 5

algorithm

Back 5

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

Front 6

heuristics

Back 6

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently, usually speedier but also more error prone than algorithms

Front 7

insight

Back 7

sudden flashes of inspiration, sudden comprehension often leads to happy feelings. associated with a burst of activity in the right temporal lobe just above the ear.

Front 8

confirmation bias

Back 8

a tendency to search for information that confirms ones preconceptions, test that guess with examples that fit expectations

Front 9

fixation

Back 9

inability to see the problem from a fresh perspective, impdement to problem solving

Front 10

what are two examples of fixation

Back 10

mental set-predisposes how we think, we tend to approach a problem wiht the mindset of what has worked for us previously

functional fixedness-tendency to only tink of the familiar functions of objects

Front 11

representativeness heruistic

Back 11

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information, such as statistics or logic

Front 12

Tversky and Kahneman

Back 12

identified two heuristics of representativeness and availability

Front 13

availability heristic

Back 13

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind we presume such events are common

Front 14

overconfidence

Back 14

the tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments

Front 15

what types of things are we likely to fear

Back 15

what our ancestral history has prepared us to fear-yesterdays risks were snakes, lizards and spiders. along with confinement and heights and therefore flying

what we cannot control

what is immediate

what is most readily available in memory- images of airplane slicing into world trade center form indeleble memories. thousands of safe car trips have extinguished our anxieties about driving

Front 16

framing

Back 16

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments. Often used in sales and survey questions to support or reject a particular viewpoint

Front 17

belief perseverance

Back 17

clinging to ones initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed ahs been discredited

Front 18

language

Back 18

our spoken, written, or signed words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning

Front 19

phonemes

Back 19

set of basic sounds, the smallest distinctive sound unit. english has about 40 other languages have half to more than twice that many

Front 20

which phonemes carry more info vowels or consenants

Back 20

consonants

Front 21

morpheme

Back 21

smallest unit of language that carries meaning in english a few morphemes are also phonemes such as I and a but most are combinations of two or more phonemes.

Front 22

grammar

Back 22

a system of rules (semantics and syntax)in a language that enables us to communicate with and understand others

Front 23

semantics

Back 23

set of rules we use to derive meaning from morphemes, words and even sentences. ie. adding ed to laugh means it happened in the past. also the study of meaning

Front 24

syntax

Back 24

the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language.adjectives usually come before nouns. enables sentence they are hunting dogs. given context semantics will tell us what they in this sentence is referring to, dogs or people.

Front 25

trace course of language acquisition

Back 25

babbling stage- beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.

one word stage-from about age 1-2 during which a child speaks mostly in single words

two word stage- beginning around age 2 child speaks mostly two word statements

telegraphic speech-early speech stage where child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting auxiliary words

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in fantis means

Back 26

not speaking

Front 27

receptive language

Back 27

ability to comprehend speech

Front 28

productive language

Back 28

ability to produce words

Front 29

Skinner a behaiviorist believed that babies learned to talk through what method of learning

Back 29

through operant learning, such as assosciation(of the sights of things with the sounds of words), imitation(of the words and syntax modeled by others), and reinforcement(wihg success, smiles and hugs when the child says something right) babies learn to talk in the same ways that animals learn to peck and press bars.

Front 30

what happens when there is minimal reinforcement for speaking as is the case with hearing children of deaf parents. their exposure to spoken language is more passive eg. television

Back 30

they learn spoken language more slowly but they learn to sign on a normal time frame

Front 31

chomsky said skinners ideas were naive. what did he propose for how we learn language

Back 31

behaivorists oversimplified language acquisition. he says language will naturally occur, given adequate nurture. there is a sort of universal grammar that underlies all human language. brains prewired. if not exposed to language a group of children will over time create their own with gestures, complete with grammar. We come equipped with a sort of witch box-a language acquisiton device-already in place. as we hear language, the switches get set for the language we are to learn.

Front 32

surface structure of language

Back 32

chomsky term for we grasp specifc phomenes, morphemes and sentences and the rules by wich we can combine them.

Front 33

deep structure of language

Back 33

the meanings of the language.

Front 34

how does learning a second language early in life contrast to learning it later in life

Back 34

brain cans reveal that adults who learned a second language early in life use the same patch of frontal lobe tissue. those who learned their second tongue after childhood display activity in a n adjacent brain area wile using their second language

Front 35

linguistic determinism

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whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think

Front 36

can thinking about doing something make you better at it

Back 36

yes, mental practice has been shown to be effective in many experiments.

Front 37

which is more effective outcome simulation or process simulation

Back 37

process simulation

Front 38

what is the relation between thinking and language

Back 38

language does influence our thinking but thinking also affects our language.

Front 39

do animals think?

Back 39

they form concepts, exhibit insight, use tools, use deception, and transmit cultural innovations. Suddendorf and Whiten(2001) estimate great apes mental accomplishments as very similar to that observed in 2 year old humans.

Front 40

Do animals exhibit language?

Back 40

definitely they have comprehension and communication.
but only humans can master the verbal or signed expression of complex rules of syntax