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206 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the normal gestation length in a mare?
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335-342 Days
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Foals are considered premature when they are born before what day?
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320
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Foals born before what day are considered abortion?
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300
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What is the earliest day that a foal can be viable?
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305 days
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What are four influences on gestation length of a mare?
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1. Season
2. Sex of foal 3. Twins 4. Toxins |
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In what seasons do mares have gestation length 5-10 days longer?
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winter and spring
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What sex in a foal has a longer gestation length? How much longer?
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males carried longer; ~3 days
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About how many days to twin foals foal early?
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6 days
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What toxin increases the average gestation length by 2 weeks to 20 days?
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fescue grass infested with Acremonium
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What does premature mean in a foal?
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underdeveloped foal born early; between 300-320 days
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What does dysmature mean in a foal?
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Birth of a foal at a normal gestation length but immature and undersized in spite of a normal gestation length
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What is the signal for maternal recognition of pregnancy mediated by?
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fetal-endometrial contact
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How does fetal-endometrial contact occur during early pregnancy?
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achieved by mobility of embryonic vesicle- uterine contractions move the embryonic vesicle from one end of the uterus to another
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When does fixation occur in early pregnancy?
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Day 16 after ovulation
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Where does fixation in early pregnancy occur?
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at the base of one horn
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What is fixation and what causes it?
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A non fetal-maternal attachment; caused by enlargement of the embryonic vesicle and tone of uterus
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In fetal-maternal attachment, what happens by day 25? Day 38-40? Day 45? Day 150?
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Day 25: close association btwn chorion and endometrium
Day 36-40: interdigitation btwn trophoblastic (chorionic) microvilli and endometirum Day 45: fetal macrovilli appear as rudimentary structures Day 150: full placental attachment in the form of microplacentomes |
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What are microplacentomes? When are they fully attached?
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Microplacentomes: microcotyledons/microcaruncles; Fully formed at Day 150
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What kind of placenta does the mare have?
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diffuse placenta
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What happens on day 25 with the formation of the endometrial cups?
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embryo forms chorionic girdle= BAND
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What occurs by day 38 in the formation of endometrial cups?
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cells from the chorionic girdle (trophoblastic cells) invade uterine epithelium
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What are endometrial cups?
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Pale, irregular (usually circular or horseshoe-shaped) outgrowths on the uterine luminal surface of a pregnant mare
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What are two functions of endometrial cups?
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1. secrete eCG
2. assist in formation of supplementary CL's |
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When is eCG first detectable? Peak? Nondetectable?
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Between 35-42 days; 55-65 days; 100-150 days
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When do secondary CL's ovulate?
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Between 40-70 days
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When do accessory CL's luteinize follicles?
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Between 40-150 days
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What are supplementary CL's?
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secondary + accessory CL's
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What is a good pregnancy test for the mare?
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eCG
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What affect does eCG have on P4 secretion?
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increase P4 secretion from primary CL
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If pregnancy is lost, mare aborts, or is aborted after 36-40 days, the mare doesnt return to estrus until what happens?
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endometrial cups regress
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What hormone remains detectable even after pregnancy is lost?
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eCG
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Lack of formation of supplementary CL's cause what during which days of pregnancy? Why?
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causes abortion between 70-150 days; because of an inadequate P4 support before fetoplacental unit develops
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When will ovariectomy not cause abortion?
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after 100-140 days
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When does prgestins of fetoplacental orgin appear in mare circulation?
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between 30-60 days; increase to day 300
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What is the size of the bulge per rectum of pregnancy at day 25-30? 35-40? 45-50? 60-65?
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1. 25-30= hens egg
2. 35-40= tennis ball 3. 45-50= grapefruit/softball 4. 60-65= cantaloupe |
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When are embryonic vesicles detectable via ultrasound on a pregnant mare?
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9-10 days
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When is the embryo visible via ultrasound on a pregnant mare?
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20-21 days
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When is the heartbeat of a fetus detectable via ultrasound on a pregnant mare?
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24-26 days
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When is the sex of the fetus determined via ultrasound in a pregnant mare?
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60-70 days
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What is the period of detection of hCG in a pregnant mare?
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40-120 days
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When will there be false positives after a pregnancy is lost?
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after 40 days
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When were there be false negatives?
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before 40 days, after 120 days
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What type of fetus causes false negatives in a mare?
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mule fetuses
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When does estrogen concentrations in blood and urine exceed that of estrus in a pregnant mare?
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60-100 days
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When does estrogen peak in a pregnant mare?
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180-240 days
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When are estrogens a viable pregnancy test?
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between day 80 and term
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What may estrogens in a pregnant mare be bound to? What is the concentrations of the conjugated estrogens?
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Bound to sulfates; conjugated estrogens 100x that of unconjugated estogens
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What are equilin and equilenin? When will these be seen?
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ring-B saturated estrogens unique to the mare; seen after 150 days in the urine
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Besides the urine, where else will estrogens be present in a pregnant mare?
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feces and milk
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What are three ways to predict the time of foaling in a mare?
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1. change in udder size and secretion
2. monitoring milk secretions 3. mechanical/electric monitoring for onset of foaling |
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When does wax accumulate on the teats of pregnant mare?
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last 1-4 days of pregnancy
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How does the color of milk change close to foaling?
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changes from thin yellow fluid to milky fluid
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What electrolyte changes in milk occur close to foaling?
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calcium and magnesium increase last 2-4 days
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What does the highest concentration of calcium and magnesium tell about foaling?
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highest concentration= 80% chance of foaling in next 12 hours
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What does the Foal watch test kit measure? What do the measurements tell?
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measures calcium carbonate; <200ppm= 99% mares will not foal in 24 hours,
>200ppm= 97% mares foal in 72 hours: 300-500ppm= foaling soon |
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What are four indications for induction of foaling?
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1. high-risk pregnancy
2. research 3. reaching 4. convenience |
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What are two types of drugs used for induction of foaling?
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1. oxytocin
2. prostaglandin |
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What is an analog of prostaglandin that causes foaling predictably?
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Fluprostenol
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What is "red bag"?
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when the chorion separates from uterus and its red, velvety surface appears at vulva rather than white amnion
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How is red bag treated?
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cut chorion and allow fluid to escape, deliver foal without having to remove chorion with it
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What may occur to the foal due to red bag?
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hypoxia/anoxia to the foal
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What are two causes of red bag at midgestation?
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1. death of a twin
2. abortion |
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What causes red bag at parturition?
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placental edema
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What are two causes of placental edema that leads to red bag?
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late gestational stress or fescue/endophyte
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How is red bag caused by placental edema treated?
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domperidone (equi-tox)
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How long does it take postpartum for a fetal membrane to be expelled?
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1/2-3 hours
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How long, postpartum, is a fetal membrane considered retained?
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3 hours
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What is a partial retained placenta?
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major portion expelled with torn piece left in uterus
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Where is a partial retained placenta most likely to occur?
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nongravid horn
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What are four factors that contribute to a retained placenta?
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1. dystocia
2. uterine trauma/myometrial exhaustion 3. placentitis 4. fetomaternal endocrine dysfunction (either inadequate release of oxytocin or inadequate response of myometrium to oxytocin) |
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What are four possible sequelae of retained placenta?
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1. metritis
2. septicemia/toxemia 3. laminitis 4. delayed uterine involution |
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What are 5 treatments for retained placenta?
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1. oxytocin
2. distention of chorioallantoic cavity with warm saline 3. systemic/local antibiotics 4. uterine lavage 5. laminitis tx/prevention: cyclooxygenase inhibitors |
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What are four postpartum emergencies?
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1. uterine prolapse
2. invagination of uterine horn 3. uterine rupture 4. internal hemorrhage |
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What are 6 ways to treat uterine prolapse?
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1. control straining
2. lift uterus to restore circulation 3. repair tears/remove placenta/ligate bleeders 4. replace and fill with warm saline 5. oxytocin to stimulate uterine contractions 6. prevent pneumovagina by suturing vagine |
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When is invagination of the uterine horn suspected?
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postpartum mare has mild colic that is unresponsive to analgesics
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What other medical condition is invagination of uterine horn associated with?
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retained placenta
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How is invagination of the uterine horn treated?
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return the uterine horn to normal position- infusion of warm water or saline to aid complete replacement
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When does uterine rupture usually occur?
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During 2nd stage labor
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What causes uterine rupture?
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dystocia or manipulation
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What are the five sequelae if uterine rupture goes undiagnosed?
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1. signs of colic
2. depressed 3. febrile 4. blood loss 5. peritonitis |
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What are two ways to diagnose uterine rupture?
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1. palpation per vagina
2. abdominocentesis |
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How is uterine rupture treated?
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laparotomy and surgical repair
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Rupture of what arteries causes internal hemorrhage postpartum? Which side is more common?
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uterine artery or utero-ovarian artery; right side more common than left
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What are three possible signs of internal hemorrhage postpartum?
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1. severe colic
2. sweating 3. evidence of hemorrhagic shock |
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What are three ways to treat internal hemorrhage postpartum?
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1. analgesics
2. corticosteroids (shock) 3. blood transfusion |
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What do many twin pregnancies result in?
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abortion of both twins around 6 to 8 months
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If twins are bilateral, success in eliminating one twin while maintaining the other is good if done before how many days?
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25 days
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By ultrasounding by what day can twins be prevented and how?
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ultrasound by 14 days (before embryos are fixed at day 16), one twin can be pinched and eliminate the twin before it becomes unilateral or bilateral
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What do you do if twins are still present at 32 days?
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either abort both before the endometrial cups are present or let them go and see if one is lost in the next month
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Besides pinching, what are two possible methods of eliminating one twin later in gestation?
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1. aspirating fluid from one fetal sac
2. intrafluid/intracardiac injection of KCl using a transvaginal ultrasound guided needle |
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What is ascending placentitis? What can it cause?
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bacteria and fungi gain entrance to the uterus via the vagina and cervix leading to abortion
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What are four signs of impending abortion?
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1. vaginal discharge
2. bagging up of the udder 3. perineal relaxation 4. ultrasound evidence |
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What are three primary treatments for impending abortion/premature parturition?
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1. progestagens: altrenogest
2. antibiotics 3. isoxsuprine (prevent uterine contractions) |
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What does bloody vulvar discharge towards the end of pregnancy mean?
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not necessarily mean that the mare has a placentitis; older mares= due to a vaginal variscosity
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When should a vaginal examination be avoided in a mare?
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when she is pregnant b.c it may result in an ascending placentitis or abortion in an otherwise healthy mare
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What is a hydropic condition?
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excessive fluid accumulations usually within the allantoic or amniotic cavities
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What is hydrallantois?
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excessive accumulation of fluid within the allantoic cavity
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When does hydrallantois usually occur during pregnancy?
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6 to 10 months of pregnancy
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What is the typical presentation of hydrallantois?
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dramatic abdominal enlargement within a 2- week period, mare has difficulty moving around or lying down and getting up
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What will transrectal palpation of a hydrallantois mare reveal?
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enlarged uterus with the dorsal wall protruding over the level of the pubis, no palpable fetus
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If hydrallantois pregnancies are allowed to progress, what may be the results?
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rupture of the abdominal wall or prepubic tendon due to the increased strain and weight on abdominal wall- usually progresses to spontaneous abortion
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What is hydramnion?
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abnormal accumulation of fluid within the amniotic cavity
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Which has more fluid accumulation: hydrallantois or hydramnion?
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hydrallantois
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What are the three theories of the etiology of Mare Reproductive Loss Syndrome of 2001?
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1. eastern tent caterpillars: ingestion of the caterpillar
2. migrating septic penetrating setae: hairs on the caterpillar migrate into the uterus and bring contamination from the gut 3. toxic factor: toxin involved |
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What is the most common cause of infectious abortion in the mare during the last half of gestation in the mare?
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Equine Rhinopneumonitis virus
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When does EHV-1 usually cause abortion?
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after 9 months, but as early as 5-6 months
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How is EHV-1 transmitted?
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inhalation/contact with infected secretions
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what is the clinical presentation of an EHV-1 abortion?
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sudden fetal loss in an otherwise healthy mare
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What are the lesions on a fetus of an EVH-1 infected abortion?
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icterus, SQ edema, scattered petechiae, hydrothroax, hydroperitonium, pulmonary edema, grayish necrotic foci in liver, adrenals, spleen, thymus and lnns
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What are the microscopic lesions on a fetus of an EVH-1 infected abortion?
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viral eosinophilic intranuclear inclusions in necrotic foci of organs
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How is EHV-1 abortion diagnosed?
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serology, ELISA, IF, PCR, gross pathology and histopathology
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How is EHV-1 abortions prevented?
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vaccination of all pregnant mares (5, 7, and 9 months), mares kept in stress-free environment, isolate horses with respiratory dz and mares that have aborted.
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How is EHV-1 vaccinations work?
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Given at 5, 7, and 9 months; immunity is short lived and vaccination is not 100% effective
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What is equire viral arteritis causitive agent?
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arterivirus
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What breeds of horses does EVA endemics happen in?
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standardbreds
(starting to happen in warmbloods) |
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What sex is the carrier of the EVA virus?
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stallion: carried in the semen
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What is the transmission of EVA?
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inhalation or venereal
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What does EVA do in a pregnant mare?
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necrotizing myometritis results in placental detachment, fetal death
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How long after infection with EVA does abortion happen?
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occurs 7-10 days after infection (likely in second half of pregnancy
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Is EVA reportable?
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Yes in many states
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What are four ways that EVA is diagnosed?
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1. serology
2. viral ID: by immunofluorescence 3. histopath 4. lesions: generalized necrotizing vasculitis |
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How is EVA mainly controlled?
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vaccination with modified-live vaccine and all stallions should be tested prior to breeding
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What does leptospirosis cause in pregnant mares?
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abortion, stillborns, and premature live births
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What are the clinical signs of leptospirosis infections in pregnant mares?
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pyrexia, icterus, anorexia, and depression
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When does lepto infections cause abortion in pregnant mares?
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1-3 weeks after clinical signs
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When, seasonally, do abortions because of leptospirosis occur?
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late fall: November/December
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What are three ways to diagnose lepto in a pregnant mare?
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1. serology with maternal serum or fetal fluids
2. leptospires isolated from urine 3. lesions in aborted materials |
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What is the status of contagious equine metritis in north america?
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eradicated
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What is the organism causing the disease of contagious equine metritis?
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Taylorella equigenitalis
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What are the clinical signs of CEM in teh stallion?
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no signs; but can persist for months or years on in the repro tract
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What is the morbidity in mares with CEM?
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VERY HIGH!- almost every mare mated to an infected stallion becomes infected: very little mortality
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What are four clinical signs of CEM infection in mares?
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1. purulent discharge from vulva 48h- 14 days after service- most infections apparent at 10-14 days
2. severe endometrial inflammation- most apparent 14 days 3. short cycles 4. conception failure |
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Why is clitoral sinus removal a control of CEM?
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b.c clitoral sign harbors T. equigenitalis and organism can withstand tx in sinus
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Is there a vaccine for CEM?
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NO
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What does equine infectious anemia cause in pregnant mares?
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abortion associated with the acute febrile disease
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What does trypanosoma equiperdum cause in horses?
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veneral disease called Dourine
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What does coital exanthema cause in horses?
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caused by EHV-3, associated with abortion or infertility; characterized by vesicles and ulcers on vulva and penis
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What does salmonella abortus equi cause in horses?
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abortion in horses- not a recent factor in recent history
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What does streptococcus zooepidemicus cause in horses?
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on external genitalia of mares and stallions causes vaginitis, cervicitis and metritis; placentitis--> abortion
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What are 5 possible pathological changes in the endometrium?
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1. endometritis
2. periglandular fibrosis and nesting of endometrial glands 3. lymphatic lacunae 4. edema 5. atrophy of endometrium |
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What is present in an endometrial biopsy that leads to the diagnosis of endometritis?
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presence of neutrophils, elevated numbers of lymphocytes, eosinophils in tissue or in lumen
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What causes periglandular fibrosis and nesting of endometrial glands in the endometrium?
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uterine gland aging and degeneration
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When is endometrial edema normal?
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in estrus
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When is atrophy of endometrium normal?
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anestrus: old mares that have stopped cycling and mares with gonadal dysgenesis
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What are the categories for endometrial biopsies according to chance for pregnancy and term foal?
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1. Category I: normal >80%
2. Category IIA: abnormal 50-80%= inflammation 3. Category IIB: abnormal 10-50%= periglandular fibrosis or lymphatic lacunae 4. Category III: abnormal <10%= v. little normal glandular tissue |
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What can persistent breeding cause in a mare?
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endometritis
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Why are young mares less likely to get persistent mating induced endometritis?
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c/b they can clear innoculum of strep. zoo.
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What is the etiology of persistent breeding caused endometritis?
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mares accumulate inflammatory products which injure the tissues causing chronic inflammation and fibrosis which leads to infertility
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What are the 7 ways to diagnose persistent mare induced endometritis?
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1. history
2. poor perineal conformation 3. mare accumulation of fluid after mating 4. vaginal speculum exam 5. uterine cytology 6. uterine culture 7. uterine biopsy |
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What are the two ways of treating persistent mare induced endometritis?
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1. remove intrauterine fluids: lavage @ 4-12 hrs after breeding, oxytocin, or cloprostenal 12-24 hrs after breeding
2. antibiotics: less effective |
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How does pyometra usually present in a mare?
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without any systemic illness
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How does pyometra affect normal cyclicity in a mare?
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normal cyclicity may continue or the life of the corpus lutuem may be altered by either early prostaglandin release due to endometrial inflammation or failure of luteolysis due to endometrial pathology
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What is pyometra?
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an accumulation of large quantities of inflammatory exudates in the uterine lumen causing uterine distension
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What are four treatments for pyometra in the mare?
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1. luteolysis
2. lavage of uterine lumen 3. antibiotics 4. hysterectomy: only in nonresponsive cases |
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What is the most common tumor the ovary in the mare?
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granulosa cell tumor
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What 3 possible things that will be seen on the history of a mare with a granulosa cell tumor of the ovary?
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1. stallion-like behavior
2. anestrus 3. constant estrus |
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How will the ovaries appear on a mare with a granulosa cell tumor of the ovary? both affected and contralateral
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atrophy of the contralateral ovary and enlargement of absence of the ovulation fossa in the affected ovary
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Besides granulosa cell tumor, what are three other possible ovary tumors?
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1. teratoma
2. arrhenoblastoma 3. serous cystadenoma |
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Besides tumors, what are two other differentials for enlarged ovaries?
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1. hematoma
2. nonpathological large follicles |
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What are three congenital abnormalities that cause infertility in mares?
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1. Turner's syndrome
2. ovarian hypoplasia 3. testicular feminization |
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What are the three components of a stallion breeding soundness evaluation?
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1. ID, Hx, PE, test for viral disease
2. semen collection and evaluation of libido/mating ability 3. semen evaluation |
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What tests are performed for the viral diseases evaluation done on a stallion for a BSE?
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EIA serology (Coggins) and EVA serology
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What are the three components of the semen evaluation for the stallion BSE?
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1. total spermatozoa= volume x conc
2. motility 3. morphology |
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When is a stallion breeding soundness evaluation done?
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sale or syndication of a stallion destined for the breeding shed for the coming breeding season with the possibility of breeding a full book of mares
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Why are two ejaculates collected when stallions are evaluated?
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second ejaculate should have 50-60% more sperm than first; both together give a representative sample
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When evaluating daily sperm output, daily ejaculates are evaluated for how long?
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one week
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What are two bacteria are cultured for in a stallion in a BSE?
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pseudomonas aeruginosa and klebsiella pneumoniae
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What are the three culture sites for the BSE in stallions?
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1. urethra pre-ejaculate
2. urethra post-ejaculate 3. semen |
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What three areas are swabbed for culture of T. equigenitalis (CEM) in a stallion BSE?
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1. prepuce
2. urethral sinus 3. fossa glandis |
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What are the sperm numbers of a stallion Satisfactory Breeding Prospect?
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produce at least one billion morphologically normal progressively motile speramtozoa in the second fo two ejaculates
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What is the sperm motility and morphology of a Satisfactory Breeding Prospect stallion?
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motility: at least 60% total and 50% progressively
Morphology: at least 50% normal |
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What does a Questionable Breeding Prospect stallion mean?
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stallion needs re-evaluation; usually has condition that can be corrected
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What is an Unsatisfactory stallion on a BSE?
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usually related to condition that cannot be corrected
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What pregnancy rate does a Satisfactory Breeding Prospect stallion usually generate?
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>60%
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What is a natural service book for a stallion? AI book?
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40 mares; 120 mares
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What organism causes equine coital exanthema?
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equine herpes virus-3
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How is EHV-3 transmitted? What are the CS?
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venereal; blisters on penis/prepuce/vulva, pain
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What is the usual treatment of trypanosoma equiperdum in a stallion?
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euthanasia!
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What are the CS of Dourine (typanosoma equiperdum) in a stallion?
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edematous swelling of external genitalia, cutaneous plaques, emaciation, penile paralysis
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What are four causes of small testes in the stallion?
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1. age/immaturity
2. testicular degeneration 3. cryptorchidism 4. testicular hypoplasia |
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What are six causes of testicular degeneration leading to small testes in a stallion?
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1. age- old stallions
2. toxins 3. steroids 4. trauma 5. testicular torsion 6. neoplasia |
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What are 7 causes of enlarged testes/scrotum in the stallion?
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1. hydrocele
2. neoplasia 3. scrotal edema 4. orchitis 5. torsion of testis 6. trauma--> hematocele 7.scrotal hernia |
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What accessory sex glands does the stallion have? Which can be palpated?
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all four
1. ampulla: Palpable 2. seminal vesicles: palpable 3. prostate gland 4. bulbourethral gland |
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What usually causes seminal vesiculitis in the stallion? Dx? Tx?
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caused by bacterial infectiouns; dx: pus and bacteria in ejaculate; tx: antibiotics
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What does a blockage of the ampulla with dead sperm or epithelial cells in the stallion cause? tx?
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causes ejaculate containing immotile sperm or azoospermia
tx: oxytocin, massage of ampullae, multiple ejaculates to clear blockage |
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What are 7 reasons for penile paralysis in the stallion?
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1. trauma
2. neurological dz 3. EHV-1 4. Rabies 5. Equine protozoal myeloencephalopahty 6.exhaustion/starvation/debillity 7.Phenothiazine tranquilizers |
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How is penile paralysis in the stallion treated?
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Same as prolapse: Support penis, hydrotherapy, ointments
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What is the most common neoplasia of the penis of the stallion? What are three less common neoplasms of the stallion?
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1. SCC= #1!
2. melanoma 3. viral papillomas 4.scrotal/preputial/penile sacroid= fibroblastic skin tunmors |
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Where are lesions of Habronemiasis usually found on the stallion? What will the lesions look like?
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preputial ring and urethra: pruritic and bleeding
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What are the treatments for stallion Habronemiasis?
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Ivermectin, corticosteroids and excision
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What causes hemospermia in a stallion?
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lesions in urethra or surface lesions: SCC bleeding, tears or rents in the urethral surface
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What affect does hemospermia in a stallion have on sperm viability?
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blood is spermicidal, therefore, it decreases fertility
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What are the four types of retained testes in the stallion and where are they located?
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1. complete abdominal: testis and epididymis both in abdomen
2. partial abdominal: testis in abdomen but part of epididymis in inguinal canal 3. Inguinal: all in inguinal 4.ectopic: SubQ testis that cannot be manually displaced into scrotum |
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What breeds are retained testes most prevalent in the staillion? What breed is least prevalent?
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Percherons> Palominos>Quarter horses; least in Thoroughbreds
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What do testosterone hormone assays say about testicular tissue in stallions?
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< 40pg/ml= no testicular tissue
>40 and <100 pg/ml= inconclusive >100 pg/ml= testicular tissue present |
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What three hormone assays are used in stallions to determine testicular tissue?
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1. testosterone
2. hCG stim test 3. Estrogen (> 3 yrs) |
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How long does the mare cycle usually last in a non-pregnant mare?
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18-21 days
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How long does estrus last in a mare?
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4-7 days
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When does estrus usually get shorter in a mare?
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June/July
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How long does diestrus last in a non pregnant mare? Is this constant?
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14-15 days; yes
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When does ovulation occur in the mare (relative to end of estrus)?
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1-2 days before end of estrus
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What does the luteal phase of the mare begin with (in regards to the CL)?
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formation of the corpus hemorrhagicum
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When does the CH mature into a CL in the mare?
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day 5 after ovulation
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What does the CL secrete in the mare?
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progesterone
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When does the endometrium release PGF 2 alpha in a mare?
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days 13-16 post ovulation
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How does PGF 2 alpha reach the ovaries in the mare?
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by a systemic route
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