The Real Slim Shady Biol 111 Final Review

Front 1

what are the properties and processes of life?

Back 1

highly ordered structure
evolutionary adaptation
response to the environment
regulation
energy processing
growth and development
reproduction

Front 2

what are the seven deadly themes of biology?

Back 2

evolution, the overarching theme of biology
new properties emerge at each level in the biological hierarchy
organisms interact with their environments, exchanging matter and energy
structure and function are correlated at all levels of biological organization
cells are an organism's basic units of structure and function
the continuity of life is based on heritable information in the form of DNA
feedback mechanisms regulate biological systems

Front 3

biological organization. biggie to smalls. go.

Back 3

biosphere
ecosystem
community
population
organism
organs and organ systems
tissues
cells
organelles
molecules

Front 4

emergent properties

Back 4

interactions among components at each level of biological organization lead to the emergence of novel properties at the next level

Front 5

emergent properties

Back 5

interactions among components at each level of biological organization lead to the emergence of novel properties at the next level

Front 6

reductionism

Back 6

breaking down complex systems into simpler components

Front 7

systems biology

Back 7

models biological systems and predicts their responses as variables change

Front 8

what the hell does dna stand for

Back 8

deoxyribonucleic acid

Front 9

most genes program

Back 9

the cell's production of proteins

Front 10

almost all cellular actions involve one or more

Back 10

proteins

Front 11

genome

Back 11

all the genetic instructions an organism inherits

Front 12

the human genome (one set of chromosomes) is about

Back 12

3 billi nucleotides long and codes for more than 75,000 proteins

Front 13

the first step of the systems strategy is to

Back 13

inventory all the known parts of a system

Front 14

the second step of the systems strategy is to

Back 14

explore how each part of the system behaves in relation to others in the working system

Front 15

the third step of the systems strategy is to

Back 15

use computers and software to combine the data to model a system network

Front 16

what three research developments contribute to systems biology?

Back 16

high-throughput technology
bioinformatics
interdisciplinary research teams

Front 17

high-throughput technology

Back 17

mega-data-collection methods such as auto DNA-sequencing

Front 18

bioinformatics

Back 18

provides the computing power, software, and mathematical models to process and integrate data from enormous data sets

Front 19

negative feedback

Back 19

an end product slows down a process, often by inhibiting an enzyme

Front 20

positive feedback

Back 20

an end product speeds up its own production

Front 21

known species/estimated

Back 21

1.8 milli out of estimated 10-400 milli

Front 22

taxonomy

Back 22

the branch of biology that names organisms and groups species into ever broader categories

Front 23

three domains?

Back 23

archaea, bacteria (prokes), and eukarya (eukes)

Front 24

talk to me about the origin of species

Back 24

published in 1859 by charlie "aww, they took my freaking kidney" darwin. presented case for "descent with modification". natty selection as mechanism of evolution

Front 25

what observations did darwin make that helped him come up with natty selection?

Back 25

individuals vary in many heritable traits
overproduction of offspring sets up a competition
species are generally matched to their environments

Front 26

science involves

Back 26

inquiry

Front 27

discovery science

Back 27

based on careful and verifiable observation and analysis of data

Front 28

observations

Back 28

involve our senses and tools that extend them

Front 29

data

Back 29

recorded observations. quantitative and qualitative

Front 30

inductive reasoning

Back 30

a generalized conclusion can be drawn from collections of observations

Front 31

hypothesis-based science

Back 31

the search for explanation

Front 32

hypothesis

Back 32

a tentative answer to a question or explanation of observations

Front 33

deductive reasoning

Back 33

proceeds from the general to the specific, from a general hypothesis to specific predictions of results if the general premise is correct. if . . . then

Front 34

hypothesis is usually tested by

Back 34

performing experiments or making observations to see whether predicted results occur

Front 35

a hypothesis must be

Back 35

testable and falsifiable

Front 36

in hypothesis-based science, the ideal is to

Back 36

frame two or more alternative hypotheses and design experiments to falsify each candidate explanation

Front 37

hypotheses can not be

Back 37

proven

Front 38

hypotheses gain credibility when

Back 38

attempts to falsify it fail

Front 39

the scientific method is

Back 39

rarely adhered to rigidly

Front 40

snake experiment. go.

Back 40

d. and k. pfennig and w. harcombe tested the hypothesis that predators will attack king snakes more frequently in non-coral snake areas than in areas where predators have adapted to the warning colors. placed equal numbers of plain and ringed colored artificial king snakes in regions w/ and w/o coral snakes. experimental snakes were attacked less frequently only in field sites within range of poisonous snakes

Front 41

controlled experiment

Back 41

one in which subjects are divided into an experimental group and a control group

Front 42

observations and experimental results must be

Back 42

repeatable

Front 43

theory

Back 43

broader in scope than a hypothesis
supported by a large body of evidence
can be modified or rejected through the testing of hypotheses it generates

Front 44

models

Back 44

help explain ideas and processes

Front 45

the test of a good model

Back 45

fits available data
incorporates new observations
makes accurate predictions of new experiments

Front 46

most scientists work

Back 46

in teams and share their results with a broader research community

Front 47

the info generated by science is applied by

Back 47

technology

Front 48

technological advances are used to extend

Back 48

scientific knowledge

Front 49

-ell

Back 49

small (organelle)

Front 50

eu-

Back 50

true (eukaryotic cell has a true nucleus)

Front 51

what elements make up 96% of living matter?

Back 51

C,H,N,O

Front 52

what elements make up most of the remaining 4% of living matter?

Back 52

Ca, P, K, S, Na, Cl, Mg

Front 53

atom

Back 53

the smallest unit of an element retaining the properties of that element

Front 54

trace elements

Back 54

required by organisms in very minute quantities, like Fe and I

Front 55

elements

Back 55

substances that cannot be chemically broken down to other types of matter

Front 56

protons and neutrons have a similar mass of about

Back 56

1.7e-24 g or 1 dalton each

Front 57

energy

Back 57

the ability to cause change

Front 58

potential energy

Back 58

energy stored in matter as a consequence of its position or structure

Front 59

the nuclei of radioactive isotopes

Back 59

spontaneously decay, giving off particles and energy

Front 60

radioactive isotopes are important tools in

Back 60

biological research and medicine

Front 61

a valence shell of eight electrons results in an

Back 61

unreactive or inert atom

Front 62

orbital

Back 62

the 3D space or volume within which an electron is most likely to be found. no more than two electrons can occupy the same orbital

Front 63

first electron shell

Back 63

single spherical orbital, called the 1s orbital

Front 64

second electron shell

Back 64

2s spherical orbital, three dumbbell-shaped p orbitals on x, y, and z axes

Front 65

structural formula example

Back 65

H--H

Front 66

molecular formula example

Back 66

O2

Front 67

valence

Back 67

bonding capacity. usually equals the number of unpaired electrons in the valence shell

Front 68

electronegativity

Back 68

the attraction of a particular type of atom for shared electrons

Front 69

ionic compounds

Back 69

aka salts. often 3d crystalline lattice arrangements held together by electrical attractions

Front 70

ion also refers to

Back 70

entire covalent molecules that are electrically charged

Front 71

weak bonds within large molecules help to create their

Back 71

3d functional shape

Front 72

hydrogen bond

Back 72

when a hydrogen atom is covalently bonded with an electronegative atom and is attracted to another electronegative atom

Front 73

van der waals interactions

Back 73

all atoms and molecules are attracted to each other when in close contact because of momentary uneven electron distributions

Front 74

when atoms form covalent bonds, their s and p orbitals

Back 74

hybridize to form four teardrop-shaped orbitals in a tetrahedral arrangement

Front 75

chemical rxns

Back 75

the making or breaking of chemical bonds

Front 76

chemical rxns are

Back 76

reversible

Front 77

increasing the concentrations of reactants can

Back 77

speed up the rate of a rxn

Front 78

chemical equilibrium

Back 78

reached when the forward and reverse rxns proceed at the same rate, and the relative concentrations of rxns and products no longer change

Front 79

an-

Back 79

not (anion)

Front 80

-valent

Back 80

strength

Front 81

electro-

Back 81

electricity

Front 82

iso-

Back 82

equal

Front 83

neutr-

Back 83

neither

Front 84

what percentage of the cell content of living organisms is made up by water

Back 84

70% to 95%

Front 85

what percentage of the earths surface is covered by water

Back 85

75%

Front 86

hydrogen bonding gives water a high

Back 86

specific heat and heat of vaporization

Front 87

a water molecule is shaped like

Back 87

a wide v

Front 88

heat

Back 88

a measure of the total quantity of kinetic energy

Front 89

temperature

Back 89

average kinetic energy of the molecules in a substance

Front 90

calorie

Back 90

the amount of heat energy it takes to raise 1 g of water 1*C

Front 91

kilocalorie

Back 91

the amount of heat required to raise 1 kg of water 1*C

Front 92

a joule=

Back 92

.239 cal

Front 93

calorie=

Back 93

4.184 J

Front 94

specific heat

Back 94

the amount of heat absorbed or lost when 1 g of a substance changes its temp by 1*C

Front 95

waters specific heat is

Back 95

1 cal/g/*C

Front 96

vaporization/evaporation occurs when

Back 96

molecules of a liquid with sufficient kinetic energy overcome their attraction to other molecules and escape into the air as ga

Front 97

heat of vaporization

Back 97

the quantity of heat that must be absorbed for 1 g of a liquid to be converted to a gas

Front 98

water's heat of vaporization

Back 98

580 cal/g at 25*C

Front 99

water's high heat of vaporization helps moderate earth's climate as

Back 99

solar heat is dissipated from tropical seas during evaporation and heat is released when moist tropical air condenses to make it rain

Front 100

evaporative cooling

Back 100

as a liquid vaporizes, the surface left behind loses the kinetic energy of the escaping molecules and cools down

Front 101

as water cools below 4*C,

Back 101

it expands

Front 102

at 0*C, water becomes

Back 102

a crystalline lattice

Front 103

solution

Back 103

a liquid homogeneous mixture of two or more substances

Front 104

aqueous solution

Back 104

one in which water is the solvent

Front 105

hydration shell

Back 105

water molecules surrounding solute molecules

Front 106

colloid

Back 106

a mixture with large hydrophillic substances that do not dissolve but become suspended in an aqueous solution

Front 107

most of the chemical rxns of life take place in

Back 107

water

Front 108

hydronium ion

Back 108

H3O+

Front 109

hydroxide ion

Back 109

OH-

Front 110

acid

Back 110

adds H+ to a solution

Front 111

base

Back 111

reduces H+ by accepting hydrogen ions or by adding hydroxide ions

Front 112

a strong acid/base

Back 112

may dissociate completely when mixed with water

Front 113

a weak acid or base

Back 113

reversibly dissociates

Front 114

pH=

Back 114

-log[H+]

Front 115

buffers

Back 115

accept excess H+ ions or donate H+ions when needed. most are weak acid-base pairs

Front 116

acid precip

Back 116

rain, snow, or fog with a pH lower than normal, 5.6. due to the rxn of water in the atmosphere with the sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides released by the combustion of fossil fuels

Front 117

lowering the pH of the soil solution

Back 117

affects the solubility of materials needed by plants

Front 118

the burning of fossil fuels increases

Back 118

the release of CO2 to the atmosphere, contributing to greenhouse effect and increasing absorption of CO2 by the oceans

Front 119

the lowering of pH of seawater

Back 119

decreases the concentration of carbonate, co3^2-, which is needed for coral reef calcification

Front 120

vitalism

Back 120

the belief in a life force independent of physical and chemical laws

Front 121

mechanism

Back 121

physical and chemical explanations are sufficient to account for all natural phenomena

Front 122

when two carbons are joined by a double bond,

Back 122

the other carbon bonds are in the same plane, forming a flat molecules

Front 123

c--h bonds in hydrocarbon chains are

Back 123

nonpolar

Front 124

structural isomers

Back 124

differ in the covalent arrangement of atoms and often in the location of double bonds

Front 125

geometric isomers

Back 125

differ in spatial arrangement due to the inflexibility of doublebonds

Front 126

cis isomer

Back 126

same atoms attached to double-bonded carbons on the same side of the double bond

Front 127

trans isomer

Back 127

atoms on opposite sides of the double bonds

Front 128

enantiomers

Back 128

left and right handed versions of each other

Front 129

asymmetric carbon

Back 129

covalently bonded to four different kinds of atoms or groups of atoms, whose arrangement can result in mirror images

Front 130

which functional group is nonpolar

Back 130

methyl group. it serves as a molecular tag

Front 131

hydroxyl group

Back 131

--OH. called alcohols

Front 132

carbonyl group

Back 132

>CO. C is = to O. at end: aldehyde, in middle: ketone

Front 133

carboxyl group

Back 133

-COOH. C is = to O and also attached to hydroxyl group. called carboxylic or organic acids because they tend to release H+

Front 134

amino group

Back 134

-NH2. compounds are called amines. can act as bases, picking up an extra H+ off the streets

Front 135

sulfhydryl group

Back 135

--SH. compounds called thiols

Front 136

phosphate gropu

Back 136

--OPO3^2-. contributes negative charge ot organic phosphates.

Front 137

methyl group

Back 137

--CH3. methylated compounds may have function modified due to addition of methyl group

Front 138

atp consists of

Back 138

the organic molecule adenosine attached to three phosphate groups

Front 139

when atp reacts w/ water,

Back 139

the third phosphate is split off and energy is released

Front 140

what elements are combined into the complex organic molecules of living matter

Back 140

CHNOPS

Front 141

enanti-

Back 141

opposite

Front 142

carb-

Back 142

oal

Front 143

sulf-

Back 143

sulfur

Front 144

thio-

Back 144

sulfur

Front 145

watson and cricks double helix had

Back 145

rungs of nitrogenous bases and twisting phosphate-sugar side ropes

Front 146

chromosomes consist of

Back 146

proteins and dna

Front 147

until 1940s, most scientists believe that ___ were the genetic material

Back 147

proteins

Front 148

tell me about F. Griffith's experiment

Back 148

1928. workin w/ two strains of streptococcus pneumonia. mixed remains of heat-killed pathogenic bacterial with harmless bacteria, and some bacteria were changed into pathogenic

Front 149

transformation

Back 149

when bacteria incorporate external genetic material, which causes a change in genotype and phenotype

Front 150

o. avery

Back 150

tested dna, rna, and proteins from heat-killed pathogenic cells. in 1944, avery, mccarty, and macleod announced that dna transformed bacteria

Front 151

viruses consist of

Back 151

little more than dna or sometimes rna contained in a protein coat

Front 152

viruses reproduce by

Back 152

infecting a cell and commandeering its metabolic machinery

Front 153

bacteriophages/phages

Back 153

viruses that infect bacteria

Front 154

hershey and chase

Back 154

1952. showed that dna was the genetic material of a phage called t2 that infects e. coli

Front 155

e. chargaff

Back 155

1950. noted that the ratio of nitrogenous bases in the dna from various organisms was species specific and that a roughly equaled t and c roughly equaled g

Front 156

chargaff's rules

Back 156

adenine=thymine, guanine=cytosine

Front 157

x-ray crystallography

Back 157

an x-ray beam passed thru a substance produces an x-ray diffraction photo w/ a pattern of spots that a crystallographer interprets as info aboutu 3d molecular structure

Front 158

who made the special x-ray crystallography picture

Back 158

r franklin

Front 159

watson and crick...

Back 159

constructed wire models to build double helix, nitrogenous bases on inside; sugar-phosphate chains on outside

Front 160

the helix makes one full turn every

Back 160

3.4 nm, ten layers of nucleotide pairs

Front 161

double helix is ___ wide

Back 161

2-nm

Front 162

purines pair with

Back 162

pyrimidine

Front 163

___ form between adenine and thymine

Back 163

2 h bonds

Front 164

_____ form between guanine and cytosine

Back 164

three h bonds

Front 165

in 1953, watson and crick

Back 165

published a paper in Nature reporting double helix as model for dna

Front 166

semiconservative model

Back 166

2 daughter dna molecules each have one parental strand and one newly formed strand

Front 167

conservative model

Back 167

parent double helix re-forms and the duplicated molecule is totally new

Front 168

dispersive model

Back 168

all four strands of the two dna molecules are a mixture of parental and new dna

Front 169

meselson and stahl

Back 169

tested semiconservative, conservative, and dispersive models by growing e. coli in a medium with nitrogen-15, which the bacterial incorporated into their nitrogenous bases. 2 generations of bacterial growth and dna was extracted and centrifuged. semiconservative!

Front 170

origins of replication

Back 170

special sites where dna replication begins. proteins that initiate replication bind to a specific sequence of nucleotides and separate the two strands to form a replication bubble

Front 171

replication forks

Back 171

y-shaped things from which replication proceeds in both directinos

Front 172

helicase

Back 172

an enzhyme that unwinds the helix adn separates parent strands at replication forks

Front 173

single-strand binding proteins

Back 173

keep separated strands apart while they serve as template

Front 174

topoisomerase

Back 174

helps relieve the strain from the twisting of dna strands in front of helicase

Front 175

primase

Back 175

joins about 10 rna nucleotides paired to teh parental strand to form the primer needed to start the new dna strand

Front 176

dna polymerases

Back 176

connect nucleotides to the growing end of a new dna strand

Front 177

how many different dna polymerases have been found so far in eukaryotes

Back 177

at least 11

Front 178

a _____ lines up with its complementary base on the template strand and______

Back 178

nucleoside triphosphate; loses two phosphate groups

Front 179

the hydrolysis of the pyrophosphate to two inorganic phosphates

Back 179

provides the energy for polymerization

Front 180

two strands of a dna molecule are

Back 180

antiparallel

Front 181

the deoxyribose sugar of each nucleotide is connected...

Back 181

to its own phosphate group at its 5' carbon and connects to the phosphate group of the adjacent nucleotide by its 3' carbon

Front 182

a strand of dna has

Back 182

polarity

Front 183

the ____ is exposed at the 5' end

Back 183

phosphate group

Front 184

the ____ is exposed at the 3' end

Back 184

hydroxyl group

Front 185

dna polymerases add nuclleotides to the

Back 185

3' end

Front 186

leading strand

Back 186

the new continuous strand being formed along one template strand by dna polymerase iii

Front 187

sliding clamp protein

Back 187

moves dna pol III along the template strand in the progressing replication fork

Front 188

lagging strand

Back 188

created as a series of short segments, called okazaki fragments, formed away from the replication fork

Front 189

each fragment on the lagging strand requires

Back 189

a primer

Front 190

dna polmerase i

Back 190

replaces the rna primer with dna nucleotides

Front 191

dna ligase

Back 191

joins the sugar-phosphate backbones of the fragments

Front 192

the various proteins that function in dna replication form a large

Back 192

dna replication complex

Front 193

in euke cells, many dna replication complexes may

Back 193

anchor to the nuclear matrix and the dna polymerase molecules may pull the parental dna strands through them

Front 194

inital pairing errors in nucleotide placement may occur as often as

Back 194

1 per 100,000 base pairs

Front 195

accuracy of dna replication

Back 195

one error in ten billi nucleotides

Front 196

mismatch repair

Back 196

enzymes fix incorrectly paired nucleotides

Front 197

dna polymerase can check

Back 197

newly added nucleotides and remove incorrect ones

Front 198

what can alter dna molecules

Back 198

reactive chemicals
radioactive emissions
x-rays
uv light

Front 199

nucleotide excision repair

Back 199

the damaged strand is cut out by a nuclease and the gap is correctly filled thru the action of dna polymerase and ligase

Front 200

uv rays can cause

Back 200

thymine dimers

Front 201

repeated replications cause a progressive

Back 201

shortening of linear dna molecules, becuase we cant attach to 5' end

Front 202

telomeres

Back 202

multiple repititions of a short nucleotide sequence at the ends of chromosomes; protect an organism's genes from being shortened during replications

Front 203

shortening of telomere may limit

Back 203

cell division

Front 204

telomerase

Back 204

an enzyme in eukaryotic germ cells that lengthen telomeres

Front 205

some somatic cancer cells and "immortal" strains of cultured cells

Back 205

produce telomerase

Front 206

double-stranded, circular dna molecule of a bacterial chromosome is

Back 206

supercoiled

Front 207

nucleoid

Back 207

region of proke cell where dna is tighly pakced

Front 208

chromatin

Back 208

a complex of an extremely long dna double helix and a large amount of protein

Front 209

eukaryotic cells have ___ more dna than a typical bacterium

Back 209

1000 times

Front 210

histones

Back 210

small, positively charged proteins that bind tightly to the negatively charged dna

Front 211

nucleosome

Back 211

dna helix wound around a protein core of four pairs of different histones

Front 212

unfolded chromatin appears as a

Back 212

string of beads

Front 213

linker dna

Back 213

the "string" between beads

Front 214

histone tail

Back 214

the amino end of each of the eight histones that extends outward

Front 215

10-nm fiber

Back 215

nucleosome (basic unit of dna packing)

Front 216

h1

Back 216

attaches to dna near the bead

Front 217

30-nm fiber

Back 217

a tightly coiled fiber of nucleosomes organized with the aid of h1, histone tails, and linker dna

Front 218

looped domain

Back 218

a loop of the 30-nm chromatin fiber attached to a protein scaffold, forming a 300-nm fiber

Front 219

in a metaphase chromosome, looped domains

Back 219

coil and foil

Front 220

in interphase, chromatin is

Back 220

extended in the nucleus

Front 221

in interphase, looped domains appear to be

Back 221

attached to discrete locations of the nuclear lamina inside of the nuclear envelope

Front 222

heterochromatin

Back 222

certain regions of chromatin that are in a highly condensed state during interphase

Front 223

euchromatin

Back 223

the more open form of interphase chromatin; available for transcription and thus gene expression

Front 224

chemical modifications of histones, like

Back 224

phosphoylation of amino acids on a histone tail, are involved in the changing structure of chromatin during mitosis, meiosis, and gene expression

Front 225

helic-

Back 225

a spiral

Front 226

liga-

Back 226

bound or tied

Front 227

-phage

Back 227

to eat

Front 228

telos-

Back 228

an end

Front 229

trans-

Back 229

across

Front 230

macromolecules

Back 230

carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids

Front 231

carbohydrates

Back 231

made of monosaccharides. energy, raw materials, energy storage, structural compounds

Front 232

proteins

Back 232

made of amino acids. enzymes, transport, movement, receptors, defense, structure

Front 233

nucleic acids

Back 233

made of nucleotides. heredity, code for amino acid sequence

Front 234

lipids

Back 234

made of glycerol and fatty acids (fats) or phospholipids or steroids which dont form polymers. energy storage, membranes, hormones

Front 235

condensation/dehydration rxn

Back 235

how monomers are joined. one provides theh ---oh and the other the --h to release a water molecules

Front 236

hydrolysis

Back 236

the breaking of bonds between monomers thru the addition of water molecules. hydroxyl is joined to one monomer and hydrogen to the other

Front 237

enzymes catalyze both

Back 237

dehydration rxns and hydrolysis

Front 238

macromolecules are constructed from about

Back 238

40 to 50 common monomers and a few rarer molecules

Front 239

monosaccharides

Back 239

general formula of (ch2o)n. n varies from three to seven. hexoses, trioses, and pentoses are most common

Front 240

sugar molecules may be

Back 240

enantiomers due to spatial arrangement of parts around asymmetric carbons

Front 241

disaccharides

Back 241

two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage

Front 242

starch

Back 242

a storage polymer of glucose in plants. helical.

Front 243

glycogen

Back 243

a highly branched polymer of glucose produced by animals to store energy

Front 244

cellulose

Back 244

the major component of plant cell walls and the most abundant organic compound on earth. differs from starch by configuration of the ring form of glucose

Front 245

enzymes that digest the alpha linkages of starch are

Back 245

unable to hydrolyze the beta linkages of cellulose

Front 246

only a few organisms, some microbes and fungi

Back 246

have enzymes that can digest cellulose

Front 247

chitin

Back 247

a structural polysaccharide formed from gucose monomers with a n-containing group; found in the exoskeleton of arthropods and the cell walls of many fungi

Front 248

fats

Back 248

composed of fatty acids attached to the three-carbon alcohol, glycerol

Front 249

fatty acid

Back 249

one large hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group at one end. nonpolar and hydrophobic

Front 250

triacylglycerol (fat)

Back 250

consists of three fatty acid molecules, each linked to glycerol by an ester linkage

Front 251

ester linkage

Back 251

a bond that forms between a hydroxyl and a carboxyl group

Front 252

unsaturated fatty acids

Back 252

have double bonds in their C skeletons. cis double bonds create a kink in the hydrocarbon chain and prevent these fat molecules from packing closely together and solidifying at room temp

Front 253

saturated fatty acids

Back 253

have no double bonds in their c skeletons

Front 254

most animal fats are

Back 254

saturated and solid at room temp

Front 255

fats of fish/plants are generally

Back 255

unsaturated and called oils

Front 256

diets rich in saturated fats adn in trans fats made in the process of hydrogenating veggie oils

Back 256

have been linked to cardiovascular disease

Front 257

adipose tissue

Back 257

made of fat storage cells, cushions organs and insulates body

Front 258

phospholipids

Back 258

consist of a glycerol linked to two fatty acids and a negatively charged phosphage group to which other small molecules are attached

Front 259

phosphate heads are

Back 259

hydrophilic and water soluble

Front 260

fatty acid chains are

Back 260

hydrophobic

Front 261

steroids

Back 261

a class of lipids distinguished by four connected C rings with various functional groups attached

Front 262

cholesterol

Back 262

an important steroid that is a common component of animal cell membranes and a precursor for other steroids

Front 263

most enzymes are

Back 263

proteins

Front 264

polypeptide

Back 264

a polymer of amino acids

Front 265

protein consists of

Back 265

one or more polypeptide chains folded into a specific 3d shape

Front 266

amino acids

Back 266

composed of an asymmetric carbon, called the alpha carbon, bonded to a hydrogen, a carboxyl group, an amino group, and a variable side chain called R group

Front 267

at the pH in a cel, the amino and carboxyl groups of amino acids are usually

Back 267

ionized

Front 268

the r group

Back 268

confers the unique properties of each amino acid

Front 269

side chains of an amino acid may be

Back 269

nonpolar and hydrophobic or polar or charged and hydrophylic

Front 270

peptide bond

Back 270

links the carboxyl group of one amino acid with the amino group of another

Front 271

protein structure is dependent on

Back 271

the interactions among the amino acids making up the polypeptide chain and usually arises spontaneously as the protein is synthesized in the cell

Front 272

the unique structure of a protein enables it to

Back 272

recognize and bind to other molecules

Front 273

primary structure

Back 273

the unique, genetically coded sequence of amino acids within a protein

Front 274

secondary structure

Back 274

involves the coiling or foldign of the polypeptide backbone, stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the electronegative O of one peptide bond and the H attached to the N of another peptide bond

Front 275

alpha helix

Back 275

a coil produced by hydrogen bonding between every fourth amino acid

Front 276

beta pleated sheet

Back 276

held by repeated hydrogen bonds along regions of the polypeptide backbone lying parallel to each other

Front 277

tertiary structure

Back 277

produced by interactions between the various side chains (R groups) of the constituent amino aicds

Front 278

what types of interactions produce tertiary structure

Back 278

hydrophobic interactions between nonpolar side groups clumped in the center of the molecule due to their repulsion by water

van der waals interactions among those nonpolar side chains

hydrogen bonds between polar side chains

ionic bonds between negatively and positively charged side chains

Front 279

disulfide bridges

Back 279

strong covalent bonds that occur between the sulfhydryl side groups of cysteine monomers that have been brought close together by the folding of the polypeptide

Front 280

quaternary structure

Back 280

occurs in proteins that are composed of more than one polypeptide chain

Front 281

chaperonins

Back 281

chaperone proteins that assist other proteins during the folding process, perhaps by providing a foldign process (talking about polypeptides)

Front 282

polynucleotides

Back 282

polymers of nucleotides

Front 283

nucleotides consist of

Back 283

a pentose (5 C sugar) covalently bonded to a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base

Front 284

pyrimidines

Back 284

cytosine, thymine, and uracil. six-membered rings of C and N

Front 285

purines

Back 285

A and G. five-membered D ring

Front 286

in dna, the pentose is

Back 286

deoxyribose

Front 287

in rna, the pentose is

Back 287

ribose

Front 288

phosphodiester linkages

Back 288

link nucleotides together. sugar to phosphate

Front 289

con-

Back 289

together

Front 290

glyco-

Back 290

sweet

Front 291

meros-

Back 291

part

Front 292

light microscopes

Back 292

refract the visible light passing thru a specimen such that the projected images is magnified

Front 293

resolutio

Back 293

how clear an image is, determined by the minimum distance two points must be separated to be distinguished

Front 294

how can visibility be improved by increasing contrast when using a light microscope

Back 294

fluorescence
phase-contrast
confocal microscopy

Front 295

light microscopes can not resolve details finer than

Back 295

.2 micrometers

Front 296

who discovered cells

Back 296

robert hooke in 1665

Front 297

electron microscope

Back 297

developed in 1950s. focuses a beam of electrons thru specimen. short wavelength of electron beam allows a resolution of aboutu 2 nm

Front 298

scanning electron microscope

Back 298

an electron beam scans the surface of a specimen usually coated w/ a thin gold film, exciting electrons which are detected and translated into an image on a screen. appears 3d

Front 299

transmission electron microscope

Back 299

a beam of electrons is passed thru a thin section of a specimen stained w/ atoms of heavy metals. electromagnets, acting as lenses, focus the image onto a screen or film

Front 300

cell fractionation

Back 300

a technique that separates organelles and other structures of a cell so that they can be identified and studied. cells are broken apart and homogenate is separated into different fractions by centrifugation

Front 301

cytosol

Back 301

a semifluid medium enclosed by p. membrane

Front 302

all cells contain

Back 302

chromosomes and ribosomes and are bound by p-membrane and have cytosol

Front 303

cytoplasm

Back 303

the entire region between nucleus and p. membrane, or the interior of a proke cell

Front 304

most bacterial cells range from

Back 304

1-10 micrometers in diameter

Front 305

most euke cells range from

Back 305

10-100 micrometers

Front 306

p membrane must provide sufficient

Back 306

surface area for the volume

Front 307

nuclear envelope

Back 307

double membrane perforated by pores that surrounds the nucleus

Front 308

what helps to maintain the shape of the nucleus

Back 308

a layer of protein filaments

Front 309

nucleolus

Back 309

a dense structure visible in the nondividing nucleus which synthesizes ribosomal RNa and combiens it with protein to assemble ribosomal subunits, which pass thru nuclear pores to cytoplasm

Front 310

ribosomes

Back 310

composed of protein and ribosomal rna

Front 311

free ribosomes

Back 311

make proteins to be used within cytosol

Front 312

bound ribosomes

Back 312

attached to ER or nuclear envelope, usually make proteins that will be included within membranes, packaged into organelles, or exported from cell

Front 313

endomembrane system

Back 313

nuclear envelope, ER, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, p. membrane. all related either thru direct contact or by transfer of membrane segments by vesicles

Front 314

ER

Back 314

continuous w/ nuclear envelope. encloses a network of inter-connected tubules or compartments called cisterae

Front 315

rough er

Back 315

ribosomes attached to cytoplasmic surface

Front 316

smooth er

Back 316

lacks ribosomes. its enzymes are involved in phospholipid and steroid synthesis, carb metabolism, and detoxification of drugs and poisons

Front 317

barbiturates, alcohol, and other drugs lead to increased tolerance b/c they

Back 317

increase a liver cells production of smooth er

Front 318

proteins intended for secretion are

Back 318

manufactured by membrane-bound ribosomes and threaded into the lumen of the rough er

Front 319

smooth er also functions in

Back 319

storage and release of ca ions during muscle contraction

Front 320

glycoproteins

Back 320

proteins covalently bonded to small carbs

Front 321

transport vesicles

Back 321

transport secretory proteins from rough er

Front 322

rough er manufactures

Back 322

membranes for the cell. enzymes built into the membrane assemble phospholipids, and membrane proteins formed by bound ribosomes are inserted into er membrane

Front 323

golgi apparatus

Back 323

a stack of flattened sacs. vesicles that bud from the er join to the cis face of golgi sack, dumping their stuff

Front 324

according to cisternal maturation model

Back 324

golgi products are processed and tagged as the cisternae themselves progress from the cis to the trans face

Front 325

within golgi,

Back 325

glycoproteins often have their attached carbs modified

Front 326

the golgi of plant cells manufacture some polysaccharides, such as

Back 326

pectins

Front 327

vesicles that pinch off from the trans face of the golgi may have surface molecules that

Back 327

direct them to p. memb or to other organelles

Front 328

lysosomes

Back 328

membrane-enclosed sacs of hydrolytic enzymes used by animal cells to digest macromolecules. have acidic ph

Front 329

phagocytosis

Back 329

some protists' lysosomes fuse with food vacuoles to digest

Front 330

macrophages,

Back 330

a type of white blood cell, use lysosomes to destroy ingested bacteria

Front 331

autophagy

Back 331

lysosomes can recycle a cell's own macromolecules by engulfign damaged organelles or small bits of cytosol

Front 332

food vacuoles are formed as a result of

Back 332

phagocytosis

Front 333

contractile vacuoles

Back 333

pump excess water out of freshwater protists

Front 334

a large central vacuole is found in

Back 334

mature plant cells, surrounded by a vacuolar membrane (tonoplast) and enclosing cell sap

Front 335

central vacuoles can contain

Back 335

organic compounds
inorganic ions
dangerous metabolic-byproducts
poisonous or unpalatable compounds which may protect plant from predators

Front 336

plant cells increase in size with

Back 336

a minimal addition of new cytoplasm as their vacuoles absorb water and expand

Front 337

membranes move from

Back 337

er to golgi to other organnelles

Front 338

cellular respiration occurs in

Back 338

mitochondria

Front 339

photosynthesis occurs in

Back 339

chloroplasts

Front 340

membrane proteins of mitochondria and chloroplasts are made by

Back 340

ribosomes either free in cytosol or contained wihtin these organelles

Front 341

mitochondria and chloroplasts contain

Back 341

a small amount of dna that directs the synthesis of some of their proteins

Front 342

a mitochondrion has

Back 342

two membranes, each a phospholipid bilayer with unique embedded proteins

Front 343

narrow intermembrane space

Back 343

between smooth outer membrane and convoluted inner membrane of mitochondrion

Front 344

cristae

Back 344

folds of mitochondrial inner membrane

Front 345

mitochondrial matrix

Back 345

inside inside of mitochondrion

Front 346

what is housed in mitochondrial matrix

Back 346

respiratory enzymes
mitochondrial dna
ribosomes

Front 347

plastids

Back 347

plant organelles that include amyloplasts which store starch, chromoplasts which contain pigments, and chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll

Front 348

chloroplasts are bounded by

Back 348

two membranes separated by a thin intermembrane space

Front 349

stroma

Back 349

fluid inside the inner membrane of chloroplast

Front 350

thylakoids

Back 350

a membranous system of flattened sacs in chloroplast, inside of which is thylakoid space. photosynthetic enzymes are embedded in these

Front 351

grana

Back 351

stacks of thylakiods

Front 352

what the hell is in the stroma

Back 352

chloroplast dna
ribosomes
many enzymes

Front 353

peroxisomes

Back 353

oxidative organelles filled with enzymes that function in a variety of metabolic pathways, such as breaking down fatty acids for energy or detoxifying alcohol and other poisons. contains an enzyme that converts hydrogen peroxide to waer

Front 354

glyoxyomes

Back 354

found in plant seeds. contain enzymes that convert fatty acids to sugars for growing seedlings

Front 355

cytoskeleton

Back 355

a network of protein fibers that give mechanical support, function in cell motility, and transmit mechanical signals from surface to interior

Front 356

motor proteins

Back 356

special proteins that interact w/ cytoskeleton to produce cellular movements

Front 357

three main types of fibers involved in cytoskeleton?

Back 357

microtubules
microfilaments
intermediate filaments

Front 358

microtubules

Back 358

in all euke cells. hollow rods constructed of columns of globular proteins called tubulins. change length thru addition or subtraction of tubulin dimers. provide supporting framework of cell and serve as tracks along which organelles move w/ aid of motor molecules

Front 359

centrosome

Back 359

a region near nucleus from which microtubules grow out in many animal cells

Front 360

centrioles

Back 360

come in pairs, each composed of nine sets of triplet microtubules arranged in a ring. associated w/ centrosome. replicates before cell divison

Front 361

yeast and plant cells lack

Back 361

centrosomes

Front 362

cilia

Back 362

numerous and short

Front 363

flagella

Back 363

occur one or two to a cell and are long

Front 364

cilia and flagella attached to stationary cells of a tissue

Back 364

move fluid past the cell

Front 365

cilia may act to

Back 365

transmit environmental signals to nucleus

Front 366

cilia and flagella are composed of

Back 366

two single microtubules surrounded by a ring of nine doublets of microtubules (9+2 arrangement), all of which are enclosed in an extension of the p membrane

Front 367

basal body

Back 367

structurally similar to a centriole, anchors the tubules in the cell

Front 368

atp drives sliding of microtubule doublets past each other as arms, composed of motor proteins called

Back 368

dyneins, alternately attach to adjacent doublets, pull down, release, and reattach, which causes bending of flagellum/cilium in conjunction w/ anchoring cross-linking proteins and radial spokes

Front 369

microfilaments

Back 369

probably present in all eukes. solid rods consisting of a twisted double chain of molecules of globular protein actin. aka actin filaments. form network just inside p. membrane in cytoplasmic layer called cortex and the core of little cytoplasmic extensions called microvilli

Front 370

in muscle cells, thousands of actin filaments interdigitate with thicker filaments made of

Back 370

myosin. sliding of two filaments causes muscle contraction

Front 371

actin and myosin also interact in

Back 371

cleavage furrows in animal cell division and amoeboid movements

Front 372

actin subunits reversibly assemble into microfilaments and then networks,...

Back 372

driving the conversion of cytoplasm from sol to gel during the extension and retraction of pseudopodia

Front 373

actin filaments interacting w/ myosin may

Back 373

propel cytoplasm forward into pseudopodia

Front 374

cytoplasmic streaming in plant cellls appears to involve

Back 374

both actin-myosin interactions adn sol-gel conversions

Front 375

intermediate filaments

Back 375

intermediate in size between microtubules and microfilaments. more diverse in comp. maintain cell shape. nucleus is held in web of thses. nuclear lamina lining inside of nuclear envelope is composed of thses

Front 376

plant cell walls are compoesd of

Back 376

microfibrils of cellulose embedded in a matrix of polysaccharides and protein

Front 377

primary cell wall

Back 377

secfreted by young plant cell. thin and flexible.

Front 378

microtubules guide the path of

Back 378

cellulose synthase

Front 379

new adjacent plant cells are glued together by the

Back 379

middle lamella

Front 380

middle lamella

Back 380

a thin layer of polysaccharides called pectins

Front 381

secondary cell wall

Back 381

secreted by some cells when they stop growing between p membrane and primary cell wall

Front 382

pseudopodia

Back 382

Pseudopodia (which translates to "false feet") are temporary cytoplasm-filled projections of the cell wall that certain eukaryotic cells use for motion or for ingesting nutrients

Front 383

cytoplasmic streaming

Back 383

Cytoplasmic streaming is the directed flow of cytosol (the liquid component of the cytoplasm) and organelles around large fungal and plant cells

Front 384

animal cells secrete an ____ composed primarily of ___

Back 384

extracellular matrix...glycoproteins

Front 385

collagen

Back 385

forms strong fibers that are embedded in a network of proteoglycan complexes

Front 386

proteoglycans

Back 386

consist of a small core protein with many attached carb chains

Front 387

cells may be attached to ecm by

Back 387

fibronectins and other glycoproteins that bind to integrins

Front 388

integrins

Back 388

receptor proteins that span the p memb and bind, via other proteins, to microfilaments of the cytoskeleton

Front 389

plasmodesmata

Back 389

channels in plant cell walls thru which p membs of bordering cells connect. transfer of water, small solutes, and even some proteins and rna molecules

Front 390

tight junctions

Back 390

proteins hold adjacent cell membranes tightly together. impermeable seal. epithelial cells

Front 391

desmosomes

Back 391

aka anchoring junctions. reinforced by intermediate filaments and rivet cells into strong sheets

Front 392

gap junctions

Back 392

aka communicating junctions. cytoplasmic connections that allow for the exchange of ions and small molecules between cells thru protein-lined pores

Front 393

3 types of intercellular junctions in animal cells

Back 393

tight junctions
desmosomes
gap junctions

Front 394

-soma

Back 394

body

Front 395

chloro-

Back 395

green

Front 396

cili-

Back 396

hair

Front 397

-ell

Back 397

small

Front 398

cyto-

Back 398

cell

Front 399

endo-

Back 399

inner

Front 400

extra-

Back 400

outside

Front 401

flagell-

Back 401

whip

Front 402

lamin-

Back 402

sheet/layer

Front 403

lyso-

Back 403

loosen

Front 404

-tubul

Back 404

a little pipe

Front 405

-oid

Back 405

like

Front 406

-kytos

Back 406

vessel

Front 407

plasm-

Back 407

molded

Front 408

-desma

Back 408

a band or bond

Front 409

thylaco-

Back 409

sac or pouch

Front 410

tono-

Back 410

stretched

Front 411

-plast

Back 411

molded

Front 412

-port

Back 412

a harbor

Front 413

ultra-

Back 413

beyond

Front 414

vacu-

Back 414

empty

Front 415

fluid mosaic model

Back 415

the structure of biological membranes consists of proteins that are attached to/embedded in a bilayer of amphipathic phospholipids

Front 416

early chemical analysis of membranes revealed a

Back 416

lipid and protein comp

Front 417

phospholipid bilayer idea came about in

Back 417

1925. 2 dutch scientists

Front 418

davson and danielli

Back 418

1935. proposed sandwich model for p memb. bilayer of phospholipids covered in coat of hydrophilic proteins

Front 419

singer and nicolson

Back 419

1972. fluid mosaic model

Front 420

freeze-fracture electron microscopy

Back 420

freezing a specimin, fracturing it with a cold knife, examining interior