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302 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Properties of Enzymes
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lower activation energy, increase rate of reaction, not consumed during rxn, enzyme and substrate bind to form enzyme-substrate complex
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Lock and Key Theory
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active site of enzyme only fits a specific substrate (the key)
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Induced Fit Model
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the shape of the enzyme and substrate are altered upon binding; helps rxn proceed
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Competitive Inhibition
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raises Km, doesn't change Vmax, overcome by addition of substrates
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Noncompetitive Inhibition
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lower Vmax, doesn't change Km, cannot be overcome by increasing substrate
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Where does glycolysis occur?
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Cytosol
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Where does citric acid cycle happen?
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Mitochondrial matrix
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where does ETC occur?
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on inner membrane of mitochondria, matrix
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Purines
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Guanine and Adenine
LARGER |
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Pyrimidines
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Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil
SMALLER |
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How many hydrogen bonds between cytosine and guanine?
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3 H-bonds
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Central Dogma
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DNA -> RNA -> protein
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Chargaff's rules
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A=T, C=G
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DNA replication
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semiconservative, requires helicase, primase, DNA pol reading 3 to 5, synthesis 5-3
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Transcription
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RNA pol doesn't require a primer
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mRNA
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molecules are long strands of RNA that are transcribed from DNA and travel to the ribosomes to direct precisely which AA are assembled into proteins
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rRNA
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provides the site where polypeptides are formed
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tRNA
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transport the AA to the ribosome for use in building the polypeptides and positioning each AA at the correct place on the elongating polypeptide chain
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Eukaryotic Ribosomes
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40+60 = 80S
assembled in the nucleolus |
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Prokaryotic Ribosomes
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30 + 50 = 70S
assembled in the nucleolus |
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START codon
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AUG
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STOP codons
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UAA, UGA, UAG
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Fungi
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heterotrophs, eukaryotes, obtain food by secreting digestive enzymes into substrates and absorb organic molecules, can have more than one nucleus, nuclear mitosis takes place in the nucleus, saprophytic, cell walls chitin, asexual reprod. (budding, fission, 2 hyphae, spores) sexual reprod. (when times are bad)
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Virus
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contains either RNA or DNA, protein capsid, use ATP for energy, chemical assemblies, lytic (virus takes over), lysogenic (virus genome incorporated into hosts)
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Common cold
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unenveloped plus-stranded virus
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DNA + RNA + protein complex in prokaryotes
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nucleiod, chromatin body, nuclear region/body
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Characteristics of prokaryotes
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no nucleus, single circular double stranded genome, no complex membrane-bound organelles, have both RNA and DNA, have ribosomes
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What are some non-complex organelles in prokaryotes?
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nucleoid, mesosome, plasmid, ribosome, flagellum, inclusion body, and fimbraie
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Mesosomes
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invaginations of the plasma membrane, may be in the shape of tubules, lamellae, or vesicles, under microscope might appear as bubbles, may be involved in cell wall formation
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Inclusion bodies
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granules of organic or inorganic matter that may be visible under a light microscope, may or may not be bound by a single layer membrane
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What are phospholipids composed of?
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a phosphate group (polar), glycerol backbone, and 2 fatty acids (nonpolar)
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amphipathic
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having both polar and nonpolar portion
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liposome
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a vesicle surrounded and filled by aqueous solution
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Eukaryotic bilayers contain?
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cholesterol
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Prokaryotic bilayers contain?
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hopanoids
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Membrane proteins act as?
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transporters, receptors, attachment sites, and enzymes
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Integral/intrinsic proteins
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traverse the membrane from the inside of the cell to the outside
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peripheral or extrinsic proteins
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situated entirely on the surfaces of the membrane, ionically bonded to integral proteins or the polar group of a lipid
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Fluid mosaic model
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forces holding the entire membrane together are intermolecular and its parts can move laterally but cannot separate; assymmetrical layout of its proteins with cholesterol or hopanoids to maintain fluidity
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Brownian motion
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at normal temp, all molecules move rapidly in random directions frequently colliding with one another, creates in compounds the tendency to mix completely with each other over time
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What is diffusion?
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net movement of one substance to a lower concentration of another, affected by head and pressure, occurs in the direction of decreasing free energy or increasing entropy
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Two aspects of a compound that affect its semipermeability?
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size and polarity, bigger = harder to get through, more polar = harder, nonpolar like lipids easily pass
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how is glucose transported throughout the body?
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facilitated diffusion
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What is one purpose of facilitated diffusion?
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makes the membrane selectively permeable because it is able to select btwn molecules of similar size and charge
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How do you move against your electrochemical or concentration gradient?
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active transport
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What creates the electrochemical gradient of the plasma membrane?
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Na/K pump, 3 sodium out and 2 K+ in
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function of cell wall in bacteria
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It prevents the protoplast from bursting
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Most bacteria are _____ to their environment
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hypertonic- the aqueous solution of their cytosol contains more particles than the solution surrounding them
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What is peptidoglycan?
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series of disaccharide polymer chains with a.a.; the chains are connected by their a.a. or crosslinked by an interbridge of more a.a.; more elastic than cellulose' porous
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How do certain antibiotics such as penicillin work?
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They attack the a.a. crosslinks of peptidoglycan
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How does lysozyme work in bacteria?
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They attack the disaccharide linkages in peptidoglycan.
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Gram-positive bacteria
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thick cell wall prevents the gram stain from leaking out, show up purple
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Gram-negative bacteria
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thin cells walls allows most of the gram stain to be washed off, appear pink, outside of the cell wall, gram-negative bacteria have a phospholipid bilayer which is more permeable than the first
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periplasmic space
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space between the plasma membrane and the cell wall, contains many proteins that help the bacteria acquire nutrition (hydrolytic enzymes)
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capsules or slime layers of bacteria
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usually made of polysaccharide, wrap bacteria; slime layers are easily washed off, while capsules are not
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capsule of bacteria
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protects the bacterium from phagocytosis, dessiccation, some viruses, and some components of the immune response of an infected host
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flagella (prokaryotic)
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long, hollow, rigid, helical cylinders made from a globular protein called flagellin; rotate counterclockwise to propel bacterium in a single direction; if rotated clockwise, the bacteria tumbles
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flagella (eukaryotic)
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composed of microtubules
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How does the flagellum propel the bacteria?
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uses energy from a proton gradient rather than by ATP
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How do spirochetes move?
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these flexible, helical shaped bacteria can move through viscous fluids by flexing and spinning.
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plasmid
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small circles of DNA that exist and replicate independently of the bacterial chromosome
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episome
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a plasmid that can integrate into the chromosome
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conjugative plasmid
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needed for conjugation; carries the genetic info for sex pilus
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sex pilus
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a hollow, protein tube that connects two bacteria to allow the passage of DNA; passage always from the cell with the conjugative plasmid to the cell that doesn't
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F factor
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fertility factor, a bacterium with F factor is called a F+
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conjugation
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one strand is nicked, and one end of this strand begins to separate from its complement as its replacement is replicated, loose strand replicated and fed through pilus
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R plasmid
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donates resistance to certain antibiotics, conjugative plasmid, taking multiple antibiotics promotes conjugation of different R plasmids providing different resistances
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transformation
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incorporation into bacterial genome of DNA fragments from external medium
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transduction
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capsid of bacteriophage mistakenly encapsulates a DNA fragment of the host cell, injects harmless bacterial DNA fragments instead of virulent
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endospores
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on gram-positive bacteria, lie dormant, resistant to UV radiation, chemical disinfectants, and desiccation. usually triggered by a lack of nutrients, the bacterium divides within its cell wall
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major distinguishing feature of eukaryotes
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nucleus
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nucleus
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contains all of the DNA in an animal cell minus some from the mitochondria, contains nucleoplasm, wrapped in a nuclear envelope with pores
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nucleolus
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where rRNA is transcribed and the subunits of the ribosomes are assembled, not separated from the nucleus by a membrane
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what two molecules can pass through the nuclear pores?
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1. proteins moving into the nucleus to be incorporated into nuclear structures or to catalyze nuclear activities
2. RNA and protein-RNA complexes formed in the nucleus and exported to the cytoplasm |
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phagocytosis
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the cell membrane protrudes outward to envelope and engulf particulate matter, only a few special cells are capable of this
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mitochondria
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powerhouses of the eukaryotic cell, Krebs cycle and ETC happens here, have own circular DNA without histones or nucleosomes, dna passed maternally, make ATP
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lysosomes
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derived from Golgi apparatus, contain hydrolytic enzymes; fxn- digest worn-out organelles and cell debris, and play a role in cell death
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cytoskeleton
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network of protein filaments; fxn-structural support and cell movement
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Golgi apparatus
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stacks of flattened vesicles; fxn: packages proteins for export from cell; forms secretory vesicles
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Endoplasmic reticulum
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network of internal membranes; fxn: forms compartments and vesicles and participates in protein and lipid synthesis
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How do substances reach the cytosol?
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a substance must cross a membrane via passive or facilitated diffusion or active transport
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How do substances reach the ER?
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can reach the ER lumen via endocytosis without ever transporting across a membrane
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Where do proteins that are synthesized on the RER go?
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they are pushed into the ER lumen and sent to the Golgi
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Smooth ER
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site of lipid synthesis including steroids; detoxifies some drugs
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peroxisomes
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vesicles in the cytosol; they grow by incorporating lipids and proteins from the cytosol, they self-replicate and are involved in the production and breakdown of hydrogen peroxide; inactivate toxic substances such as alcohol, regulate o2 conc, play a role in synth and breakdown of lipids, and in the metabolism of nitrogenous bases and carbs
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Where does the SER synthesize lots of lipids?
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brain, testes, and intestine
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What does the SER do in the liver?
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detoxification of drugs, including amphetamines, morphine, codeine, and phenobarbital
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Phagocytosis
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the cell membrane protrudes outward to envelope and engulf particles; only special cells do this and they require the binding of proteins on the particle matter to protein receptors on the phagocytic cell
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Pinocytosis
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extracellular fluid is engulfed by small invaginations of the cell membrane (random)
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Receptor-mediated endocytosis
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specific uptake of macromolecules such as hormones and nutrients, a ligand binds to a receptor protein on the cell membrane
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Transmembrane proteins- carriers
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Actively and passively transport molecules across membrane; escorts molecules through the membrane in a series of conformational changes; ex) Na/K pump
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Transmembrane proteins- channels
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passively transport molecules across membrane; create a tunnel that acts as a passage through membrane; ex) Na and K channels in nerve cells
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Transmembrane proteins- receptors
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transmit info into cell; signal molecules bind to cell surface portion of the receptor protein; this alters the portion of the receptor protein within the cell, inducing activity; ex) specific receptors bind peptide hormones and NT
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Glycoproteins
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self recognition; create a protein/carbohydrate chain shape characteristic of individual; ex)major histocompatibility complex protein recognized by immune system
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Glycolipid
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Tissue recognition; create a lipid/carbohydrate chain shape; ex) A, B, O blood group markers
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solvent
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water or liquid portion of an aqueous solution
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solute
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substances dissolved in water
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aquaporins
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specialized channels for water
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hydrostatic pressure
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pressure of the cytoplasm pushing out against the cell membrane
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osmotic pressure
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pressure that must be applied to stop the osmotic movement of water across a membrane
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Sodium-potassium pump
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3 Na+ out and 2 K+ come in
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How does viagra function?
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It stimulates nitric oxide release
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B-adrenergic receptor
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G-protein-linked molecule, that when it binds to an extracellular signal such as epinephrine, it produces cAMP inside the cell, which effects cellular change
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tight junctions
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form watertight seal from cell to cell that can block water, ions, and other molecules; founds in organs like bladder, intestines, and kidneys
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desmosomes
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join 2 cells at a single pints, attach directly to the cytoskeleton of each cell; do not prevent fluid from circulating around all sides of a cell; found in tissues that normally experience a lot of stress like skin or intestines
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what are microfilaments used for?
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contracting muscles, cytoplasmic streaming, phagocytosis, and microvilli movement
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what are microtubules used for?
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facilitate cellular movement, move materials within the cell, and special motor proteins move cellular organelles around the cell on tracks
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How do kinesin move?
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They move organelles toward the "+" end, toward the cell periphery
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How do dyneins move?
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They move organelles toward the "-" end.
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what kinds of things are microtubules?
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mitotic spindle, flagella, cilia
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What are some differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic flagella?
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Euk- made from a 9+2 microtubule configuration and undergo a whip-like action; Prok- thin strand of a single protein called flagelin and rotate
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What is the purpose of intermediate filaments?
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composed of overlapping staggered tetramers of protein which allows for a ropelike structure that imparts tremendous mechanical strength; ex) keratin, vimentin
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what processes are dynein used in?
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flagellar movement and moving organelles towards the middle of the cell
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Interphase
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G1- first growth phase
S-synthesis G2- second growth phase |
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Mitosis
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Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
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centromere
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a constricted region of a chromosome about 220 nucelotides in length, composed of highly repeated DNA sequences. During mitosis, the centromere joins the two sister chromatids and is the site to which the kinetochores are attached
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euchromatin
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the portion of a chromosome that is extended except during cell division, and from which RNA is transcribed
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heterochromatin
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the portion of a chromosome that remains permanently condensed and, therefore, is not transcribed into RNA
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kinetochore
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a disk of protein bound to the centromere and attached to microtubules during mitosis linking each chromatid to the spindle apparatus
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nucleosome
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the basic packaging unit of eukaryotic chromosomes, in which the DNA molecule is wound around a cluster of histone proteins. chromatin is composed of long strings of nucleosomes that resemble beads on a string
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what is the most common catabolic reaction in the human body?
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hydrolysis
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DNA consists of:
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nitrogenous base, deoxyribose sugars, phosphate (phosphodiester bonds)
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What carbohydrate polymer is stored in plants and digestible by animals?
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starch
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What is not digestible by animals?
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cellulose
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excessive amounts of nitrogen are found in the urine of an individual who has been fasting, why?
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breakdown on body proteins for energy
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what is found in RNA but not DNA?
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an additional hydroxyl group
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what molecule aids in breakdown or catabolism?
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water
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what don't they just increase temperature to accelerate enzyme-catalyzed reaction?
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heat changes the configuration of proteins
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What is true concerning feedback inhibition?
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it often acts by inhibiting enzyme activity and it works to preventing a build up of excess nutrients
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what can overcome the effects of a competitive inhibitor?
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adding more substrate
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What is the final electron acceptor in ETC?
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Oxygen
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Where does the Kreb cycle appear?
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mitochondrial matrix
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As electrons move within the ETC, each intermediate carrier molecule is...?
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reduced (gain electrons) by the preceding molecules and oxidized by the following moelcule (loses electrons)
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Why do the heart and liver produce more ATP for each molecule of glucose?
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they have a more efficient mechanism for moving NADH produced in glycolysis into the mitochondrial matrix
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what is true in southern blotting?
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negatively charged DNA moves toward the anode
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where is the growing polypeptide found on the ribosome?
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P site
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purpose of signal peptide attaching to SRP complex?
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direct the ribosome to attach to the ER
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In which phase does translation, transcription, and replication take place?
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S phase
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what are the oocytes arrested in after birth?
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Prophase I of meiosis
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what does not occur in prophase I?
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chromosomal migration
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purpose of lipopolysaccharide layer outside the cell wall of bacteria?
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protects the bacterium against certain antibiotics
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exponential growth of bacteria in nutrient rich solution results from?
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binary fission
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a staphylococcus infection most likely caused by?
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a spherical shaped organism
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mechanism of reproduction in bacteria
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binary fission
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The kingdom of Fungi is divided into?
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divisions
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what is the selective advantage of the haploid state of fungi?
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the haploid state can reproduce more quickly than the diploid
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How do Fungi obtain food?
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they digest their food outside their bodies
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Does the flagella of prok. contain microtubules?
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false
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When does the nucleolus disappear?
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during prophase
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what is a non-membrane bound organelle?
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ribosome
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What type of cells have unipolar neural structures?
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sensory only
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What type of cells have biopolar neural structures?
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retina, inner ear, olfactory area of the brain
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What type of cells have multipolar structures?
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Most other neurons
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sensory neurons
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Afferent neurons; carry impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS
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motor neurons
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Efferent neurons; carry impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles and glands)
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interneurons
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Association neurons; located in the brain and s.c. of vertebrates where they provide more complex reflexes and higher associative functions such as learning and memory
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PNS
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peripheral nervous system which includes sensory and motor neurons
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somatic motor neurons
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motor neurons that stimulate skeletal muscles to contract
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autonomic motor neurons
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neurons that regulate the activity of the smooth muscles, cardiac muscle, and glands; further broken down into sympathetic and parasympathetic
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accommodation
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if the threshold stimulus is reached, but it is reached very slowly, an AP still may not occur
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absolute refractory period
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short period of time in which no stimulus will create another A.P.
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relative refractory period
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the time during which only an abnormally large stimulus will created an A.P.
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Electrical synapses
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uncommon, composed of gap junctions between cells; cardiac muscle, visceral smooth muscle, and few neurons in CNS; much faster
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Five forces creating tertiary structure
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covalent disulfide bonds between two cysteine a.a., electrostatic (ionic) interactions mostly between acidic and basic side chains, hydrogen bonds, van der Waals forces, hydrophobic side chains pushed away from water
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acidic a.a.
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glutamate, aspartate
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basic a.a.
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lysine, arginine, histidine
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polar a.a.
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serine, threonine, cystein, tyrosine, asparagine, glutamine
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nonpolar a.a.
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Methionine, Alanine, Leucine,Tryptophan, Proline, Valine, Isoleucine, Phenylalanine
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What hormones are secreted by the anterior pituitary?
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hGH, ACTH, TSH, FSH, LH, and prolactin (ALL PEPTIDE HORMONES)
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What hormones are secreted by the posterior pituitary?
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ADH and oxytocin (both SMALL
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What hormones are secreted by the adrenal cortex?
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mineral corticoids (aldosterone) and glucocorticoids (cortisol) (STEROID hormones)
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What hormones are secreted by the adrenal medulla?
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Epinephrine and norepinephrine (water soluble tyrosine derivatives)
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What hormones are secreted by the thyroid?
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T3 and T4 (lipid soluble tyrosine derivatives); calcitonin (peptide)
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What hormones does the pancreas secrete?
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insulin and glucagon (PEPTIDE hormones)
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What hormone does the parathyroid secrete?
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PTH (peptide hormone)
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peptide hormone
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water soluble, moves freely through blood; instead of diffusing through the cell of the effector, they attach to the membrane-bound receptor; receptor either acts as ion channel or activates 2nd messenger system
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steroid hormone
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made in the SER and mitochondria; they require a protein transport molecule in the blood and diffuse through the effector's cell membrane, act at the transcription level
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tyrosine derivatives
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made in the cytosol or RER; T3 and T4 are lipid soluble, while E/NE are water soluble
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plasma w/o fibrinogen
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serum
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albumin
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transports fatty acids and steroids; regulates osmotic pressure of the blood
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immunoglobulins
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antibodies
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where are albumin, fibrinogen, and other plasma proteins formed?
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LIVER
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what's an important function of plasma proteins
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act as a source of AA for tissue protein replacement
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macrophage
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phagocytosis; processing and presentation of foreign antigens to T cells; secretion of interleukin-1, which stimulates secretion of interleukin-2 by helper T cells and induces proliferation of B cells; secretion of interferons that stimulate T cell growth
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dendritic cell
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processes and presents antigen to T cells and B cells; found in mucous membranes, skin, and lymph nodes
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B cell
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Processes and presents antigen to helper T cells
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primary lymphatic organs
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thymus and red bone marrow
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secondary lymphatic organs
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lymph nodes, spleen, and lymphatic nodules
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naturally acquired active immunity
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following exposure to a microbe, antigen recognition by B cells and T cells and costimulation lead to the formation of antibody-secreting plasma cells, cytotoxic T cells, and B and T memory cells
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naturally acquired passive immunity
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transfer of IgG antibodies from mother to fetus across placenta, or of IgA antibodies from mother to baby in milk during breast-feeding
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artificially acquired active immunity
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antigens introduced during a vaccination stimulate cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immune response, leading to the production of memory cells
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artificially acquired passive immunity
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intravenous injections of antibodies
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pancreatic duct
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allows passage of pancreatic enzymes into the duodenum (first part of the small intestines)
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pancreatic amylase
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digests carbohydrates
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enterokinase
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converts trypsinogen to trypsin, so other enzymes can be converted from their zymogen form
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What two parts of the nephron are impermeable to water but sensitive to ADH?
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last part of the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct
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What part of the nephron is always impermeable to water?
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ascending loop of henle and first part of the distal convoluted tubule
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During a muscular contraction, what happens to the thick and thin filaments?
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neither the thin nor the thick filament contract
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Irreversible sequestering of calcium in the SR would most likely result in:
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prevent myosin from binding to actin
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When undergoing physical activity, skeletal muscle is likely to respond with an increase in all of the following except:
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mitosis
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What is not a function of skeletal muscle?
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peristalsis (only of smooth muscle)
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vasodilation occurs when smooth muscle is relaxed or contracted?
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relaxed
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What kind of muscle is the diaphragm made out of?
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skeletal
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What innervates the diaphragm?
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medulla oblongata to the phrenic nerve
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pathway of air through respiratory system?
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nose, pharynx, larnyx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
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keratinocytes
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release keratin and lamellar granules which help waterproof the skin
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melanocytes
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produce melanin which protects skin from UV rays
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Langerhans cells
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immune function; interact with the helper T-cells of the immune system
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Merkel cells
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attach to sensory neurons and function in the sensation of touch
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what are the 5 layers of the epidermis? (superficial to deep)
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stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale
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principal quantum number
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n; designates the SHELL level; the larger the principal quantum number, the greater the size and energy of the electron orbital
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azimuthal quantum number
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l; SUBSHELL or orbital shapes that we are familiar with; if l= 0, then s. l=1, then p, etc.
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magnetic quantum number
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ml; designates the precise orbital of a given subshell; -l to +l ; s has one; p has 3; d has 5, f has 7
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electron spin quantum number
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ms; can have values of - 1/2 or +1/2; any orbital can hold up to 2 electrons and no more
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1st row of periodic table orbitals:
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1s
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2nd row of periodic table orbitals:
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2s and 2p
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3rd row of periodic table orbitals:
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3s and 3p
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4th row of periodic table orbitals:
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4s, 3d, 4p
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5th row of periodic table orbitals:
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5s, 4d, 5p
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6th row of periodic table orbitals:
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6s, 4f, 5d, 6p
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7th row of periodic table orbitals:
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7s, 5f, 6d
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effective nuclear charge
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= Z -shielding electrons
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Hund's rule:
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when you fill a subshell with more than 1 orbital (p, d, f), you first fill each orbital with a single electron and with the same spin
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chemical properties of metals:
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likes to lose electrons to gain a + oxidation state (good reducing agent); lower electronegativity and thus has a slight positive charge when bonded to non-metal; forms basic oxides
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chemical properties of nonmetals:
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likes to gain electrons to form a - oxidation state (good oxidizing agent); higher electronegativity and thus has a slight - charge; forms acidic oxides
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physical properties of metals:
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good conductor of heat and electricity; malleable, ductile, luster, solid at room temp (except for mercury)
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physical properties of nonmetals:
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poor conductor of heat and electricity; solid, liquid, or gas at room temp. if solid, brittle and little luster
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first ionization energy
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energy needed to knock off one valence electron; lowest for alkali metals and alkali earth metals
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electron affinity
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amount of energy released when something gains an electron; how easily it can gain an electron
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atomic radius and metallic character
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increase to the left and down
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what three trends increase up and to the right?
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Electronegativity, electron affinity, energy of ionization
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one bonding pair and no lone pair
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linear; ex. = H2
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2 bonding pairs and no lone pair
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linear; ex. = CaH2
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3 bonding pairs and no lone pair
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trigonal planar; ex.= BH3
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4 bonding pairs and no lone pair
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tetrahedral; ex.= CH4
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3 bonding pairs and one lone pair
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trigonal pyramidal; ex.= NH3
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2 bonding pairs and 2 lone pairs
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bent; H20
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1 bonding pair and 3 lone pairs
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linear; ex.= HF
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5 bonding pairs and 0 lone pairs
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trigonal bipyramidal; ex.= SbF5
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4 bonding pairs and 1 lone pair
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seesaw; ex.= SeF4
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3 bonding pairs and 2 lone pairs
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T-shaped; ex.= IF3
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2 bonding pairs and 3 lone pairs
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linear; ex.= XeF2
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6 bonding pairs and 0 lone pairs
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octahedral; ex. =SF6
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5 bonding pairs and 1 lone pair
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square pyramidal; ex.= BrF5
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properties of ideal gases:
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1. random molecular motion
2. no intermolecular forces 3. no molecular volume 4. perfectly elastic collisions |
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When can we call gases "ideal" gases?
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low pressure and high temperatures
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1 atmosphere is equal to?
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760 mm Hg or 760 torr or 101 kPa or 101,000 Pa
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molar volume at 0 C and 1 atm for ideal gases?
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22.4 L/mol
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Pressure =
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Force/ Area
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solid
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atoms/molecules vibrate around a fixed position; hard to compress; does not flow to fill a container
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liquid
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atoms/molecules move about but are close together and bound by intermolecular forces; hard to compress; flow to fill a container
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gas
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atoms/molecules fly about apart from each other and do not experience intermolecular forces; easy to compress; flows to fill a container
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intermolecular forces
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london dispersion forces, dipole-dipole interactions, hydrogen bonding
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intramolecular forces
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covalent and ionic bonds
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critical point
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the temperature and pressure at which liquids and gases become indistinguishable.
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critical temperature
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the temperature above which you can no longer get a liquid no matter how much pressure you press on it.
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molality
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mol/kg
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Raoult's Law (vapor pressure lowering)
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delta P = X (mole fraction * P (vapor pressure of solvent)
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Boiling Point Elevation
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delta T = k (molal constant) * m(mol/kg)
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how to tell if reaction is zero order?
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plot concentration vs. time and you should have a straight negatively sloping line
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how to tell if reaction is 1st order?
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plot ln[A] vs. time and you should have a straight negatively sloping line
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how to tell if reaction is 2nd order?
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plot 1/[A] vs. time and the line should be a straight positively sloping line
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how to tell if reaction is 3rd order?
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plot 1/2[A] ^2 vs. time and the line should be a straight positively sloping line
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relate equilibrium constant to delta G
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delta G = -RT ln Keq
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NH4+
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ammonium
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nitrite
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NO2-
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nitrate
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NO3-
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sulfite
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SO3-2
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sulfate
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SO4-2
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hypochlorite
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ClO-
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chlorite
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ClO2-
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chlorate
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ClO3-
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perchlorate
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ClO4-
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CO3-2
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carbonate
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bicarbonate
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HCO3-
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PO4-3
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phosphate
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hydrogen sulfate ion
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HSO4-
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OH-
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hydroxide ion
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CN-
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cyanide ion
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thiocyanate ion
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SCN-
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arsenate ion
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AsO4-3
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acetate ion
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C2H3O2-
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permanganate ion
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MnO4-
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dichromate ion
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Cr2O7-2
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chromate ion
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CrO4-2
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peroxide ion
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O2-2
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Bronsted acid
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proton donor
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Bronsted base
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proton acceptor
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Electrolytic Cell
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anode = oxidation +
cathode= reduction - electrons flow from anode to cathode; current flows from cathode to anode |
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electron flow in galvanic and electrolytic cell
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anode to cathode
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current flow in galvanic and electrolytic cell?
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cathode to anode
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transverse wave examples
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light waves, electromagnetic waves
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longitudinal wave examples
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sound waves, pressure, and earthquakes
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According to the doppler effect, what happens as sound approaches?
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the wavelength shortens and the frequency increases; there is an elevated pitch
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According to the doppler effect, what happens as sound recedes?
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the wavelength lengthens and the frequency decreases; there is a declining pitch
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how to calculate buoyancy
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Fb= density of water * Volume submerged * g
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Archimedes principle
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buoyant force on an object = weight of the fluid displaced by the object
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highest energy to lowest energy for electromagnetic radiation
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gamma rays, x-ray, UV, light, infrared, radio
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Resistivity equation
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R = p L/A
if length, temperature, or resistivity go up, then resistance increases. If area increases, then resistance decreases |
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Ohm's Law
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V= IR
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Power in a circuit
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P = IV or P= I^2R = V^2/R
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what two forces exist in the nucleus?
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strong force and electromagnetic force
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