The Human Past - Chapter 2

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Genotype

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A complete set of genes possessed by an individual.

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Phenotype

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The observable traits of individual appearance and behaviour created by the interaction of the genotype and environment.

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Gradualism

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Model of human evolution in which major changes are the result of a slow or steady accumulation of small changes.

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Punctuated equilibrium

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Model of human evolution in which periods of rapid, dramatic change occur over short periods of time, separated by longer periods of little change.

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Stasis

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In evolutionary terms, period in which there is little or no change, such as those separating events in the punctuated equilibrium model.

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Ecological niche

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Environmental to which a species becomes adapted.

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Adaptive radiation

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Model in which a set of related species radiate and branch out to occupy and adapt to a range of diverse environmental niches quickly evolving into new species.

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Charles Darwin

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(1809-1882) Revolutionised scientific thought with his Origin of Species (1859) in which he proposed change due to natural processes, better known as the Theory of Evolution, rather than divine creation.

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Alfred Wallace

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(1823-1913) Contemporary of Darwin, who independently developed his idea of evolution and natural selection while in Southeast Asia. His memoirs pushed Darwin to present his and Wallace's theories in 1858.

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Mary Leakey

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(1913-1996) Major figure in the discovery of early hominid fossils and sites. She has worked mainly in East Africa's Olduval Gorge with her husband Louis, and later at Laetoil.

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Louis Leakey

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(1903-1972) Major figure in the discovery of early hominid fossils and sites. He worked at Olduval Gorge with his wife Mary. He discovered the first Homo habilis and Australopithecus boisei fossils at the famous FLK Zinj site.

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Richard Potts

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Part of debate on the nature of Oldowan sites and early human behaviour. Argues accumulation sites represent purposeful "stone caches" placed strategically in foraging areas by early hominins.

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Glynn Isaac

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(1937-1985) Part of debate on the nature of Oldowan sites and early human behaviour. Argues that sites represent 'Central place foraging' or home-base sites analogous to modern hunter and gatherers.

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Lewis Binford

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(1930- ) Part of debate on Oldowan sites and early human behaviour. Argues that sites represent carnivore kills latter scavenged, not hunted, by early humans.

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Robert Blumenshine

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Part of the debate on Oldowan sites and early human behaviour. Argues sites are foci of processing activities for meat scavenged by early humans.

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Kathy Schick

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Part of the debate on nature of Oldowan sites and early human behaviour. Argues sites are "favoured places", recurrently used by early humans for processing and storing.

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Henry Bunn

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Part of the debate on nature of Oldowan sites and early human behaviour. Uses faunal remains at Oldowan sites to argue for early human hunting or "early access" to carnivore kills.

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Leslie Aiello

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Proponant, with Peter Wheeler of the "Extensive Tissue Hypothosis which argues that meat (or marrow)-eating in early humans is interlinked with brain expansion and tool use.

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Peter Wheeler

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Proponant, with Leslie Aiello of the "Extensive Tissue Hypothosis which argues that meat (or marrow)-eating in early humans is interlinked with brain expansion and tool use.

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Lawrence Keeley

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Has conducted experimental archaeology studies and use-wear analysis to infer the function and use of oldowan tools.

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Primate

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The mammalian order that includes prosimians, monkeys, apes and humans

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Lower Primates

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Suborder grouping of the Prosimii which include lemurs, lorises, tarsiers. Retain primitive characteristics.

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Higher Primates

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Suborder grouping of the Anthropoidea which include monkeys, apes and humans. Considered to have more derived characteristics.

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Arboreal

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Tree-dwelling

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Encephalisation

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Enlargement of the brain.

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hominin

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Tribe grouping which includes early and modern human lineages characterised by upright, bipedal locomotion.

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Prosimii

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Lemurs, lorises and tarsiers. they retain primitive morphological features and traits, such as acute olfactory system, specialised claws and less developed grasping ability.

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Hominoidea

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Superfamily grouping within the Anthropoidea which includes gibbons, orangutans, chimpanzees, gorillas and humans

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Aegyptopithecus

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33mya Oligocene primate from Faiyum (Egypt) ancestral to Old World anthropoids (monkeys and apes)

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Anthropoidea

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Old and New World monkeys, apes and humans. They have derived features including brain size to body ratio and high visual reliance.

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Proconsul

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23-14mya. Early miocene anthropoid ape from Easr Africa ancestral to modern ape lineages.

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Kenyapithecus

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16-14mya. Miocene ape from Africa and possibly ancestral to the African apes.

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Dryopithecus

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13-10mya. Miocene ape from Europe ancestral to the African apes lineages.

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Sivapithecus

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10-7mya. Miocene ape from Asia ancestral to modern Orangutans.

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Ramapithecus

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12-14mya. Miocene ape once thought to be ancestral to australopithecines, now grouped with sivapithecus.

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Eocene

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Part of the Tertiary Period. Cenozoic Era from 54.8-33.7mya. Radiation of early primate species.

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Oligocene

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Part of the Tertiary Period. Cenozoic Era from 33.7-23.8mya. First anthropoid ape species (Aegyptopithecus)

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Miocene

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Part of the Tertiary Period. Cenozoic Era from 23.8-5.3mya. Anthropiod radiation and first Hominoids (eg Dryopithecus)

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Pliocene

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Part of the Tertiary Period. Cenozoic Era fromm 5.3-1.8mya. Emergence of bipedal hominoids and the human lineage (Australopithecus and Homo).

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Pleistocene

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Part of the Quartenary Period. Cenozoic Era 1.8mya-10kya. Period of human (Homo) evolution and migration.

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Australopithecus

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Earliest hominid genus with robust and gracile species from 4-1mya. Characteristics include bipedal locomotion, reduced tooth size and brain enlargement.

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A. anamenis

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4.2-3.9mya. gracile species found at Allia Bay and Kanopoi, East Africa. Species earliest evidence of bipedalism.

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A. afarensis

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4-2.9mya. Gracile species found at Hadar and Laetoli, East Africa. Brain size of 375-500cc. Discoveries include Laetoli footprints and partial skeleton named Lucy.

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A. africanus

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3-2mya. Gracile species found at Taung, Sterkfontein and Makpansgat, Southern Africa. Brain size of 400-500cc. Discovery of the Taung Child revolutionary in 1925.

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A. garhi

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3-2mya. Gracile species found at Awashand Orno, East Africa. Brain size of 450cc. Possible ancestor to Homo lineage. Cut marks on bones found with species suggests tool use.

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A. aethiopicus

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2.8-2.2mya. Species with intermediate gracile and robust features found at West Turkana and Orno, East Africa. Brain size 410cc. Possible ancestor to robust lineages.

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A. boisei

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2.3-1.4mya. Robust species found throughout East Africa. Brain size 500-550cc. Discoveries include Zinjanthropus in Olduvail and FLK Zinj site

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A. robustus

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1.8-1mya. Robust species found at Swartkrans and Kromdraai, Southern Africa. brain size 500-550cc. Discovery of possible bone tools in association with the species in Swartkrans cave.

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Paranthropus

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Genus name used by some to differentiate the robust Australopithocine lineages.

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Homo

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Genus including modern humans and their ancestors. Characteristics include long legs and shorter arms, dexterous hands and thumbs, reduced teeth size, brain expansion, decreased sexual dimorphism.

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H. rudolfensis

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2.3-1.8mya. Early Homo species from East Turkana, East Africa. Brain size 750cc. Associated with the Oldowan stone tool industry.

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H. hablis

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1.9-1.6mya. Early Homo species found in Eastern and Southern Africa. Brain size 700cc. Associated with Oldowan and developed Oldowan stone tool industries.

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H. ergaster

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1.8mya-600,000 years. Found in Eastern and Southern Africa, possibly in Europe. Brain size 600-910cc. Associated with Oldowan industries in early Acheulan.

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H. erectus

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1mya-500,000 years found throughout Asia. Brain size 810-1250cc Associated with Oldowan and Acheulan industries. Made first major migration out of Asia.

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Sexual dimorphism

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Difference in size between male and female of the same species.

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Prograthism

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The projection of the jaw away from the brain case.

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Angled knee joint

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Anatomical characteristic indicative of bipedal locomotion found in Australopithecus and Homo species.

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Arched foot

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Anatomical characteristic indicative of bipedal locomotion found in Australopithecus and Homo species.

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DNA

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Deoxyribonucleic acid, a molecule that carries genetic instructions from parents to offspring.

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Molecubi Clock

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Quantification of genetic changes between species to estimate the time elapsed since their divergence.

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Genetic divergence

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Changes in the genetic makeup of a species are created

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Stratigraphy

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The successive deposition of superimposed layers of either natural or cultural material.

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Geomorphology

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Study of the development of land forms.

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Paleobotanical evidence

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Fossil plants remains such as pollen, seeds, phytoliths and other structures indicative of paleoenvironments.

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Fossil animal remains

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Remains used to infer associated habitats based on modern animal analogs.

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Zooarchaeology

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The analysis of faunal remains from archaeological sites. Used to reconstruct past subsistance practices and the contemporary environment at the time of deposition.

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Experimental archaeology

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Analogical method in which tasks or objects from the past are replicated and compared to the archaeological remains.

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Taphonomy

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The study of processes that affect organic materials after deposition which determine their survival in the archaeological record.

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Microwear studies

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The study of all patterns of wear or damage on the edges of stone tools, which provides valuable information on the way in which the tool was used.

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Site formation processes

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The study of the cultural and natural forces affecting the way in which sites are buried and subsequently altered over time.

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Isotopic studies

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A technique which analyses the ratios of the principle isotopes preserved in bone and teeth, providing a general understanding of an animal's diet.

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Landscape archaeology

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The study of individual features including settlements seen as single components within the broader perspective of the patterning of human activity over a wide area.