The Human Body And Evolution

Front 1

what does circulatory refer to?

Back 1

a system in motion

Front 2

what does cardiovascular refer to?

Back 2

the structural components of the system

Front 3

primary functions of the cardiovascular system

Back 3

to EXCHANGE gas and TRANSPORT energy, nutrients, and waste products

Front 4

the mammalian heart has how many chambers? what are these chambers called?

Back 4

it has 4 chambers. there are 2 ATRIA and 2 VENTRICLES. (L/R). atria are the collecting chambers with thin walls, ventricles have thick walls that are more powerful to pump blood out of the heart

Front 5

the heart cycle has a sequence of events with each heart beat called systole and diastole. what do these mean?

Back 5

systole- heart contracts, ventricles pump blood into vessels

diastole- ventricles fill with blood

Front 6

what does the systolic and diastolic events diagnose?

Back 6

hypertension- too high of blood pressure

hypotension- too low of blood pressure.

120/80 -first number is systolic, second number is diastolic. measured in mmHg.

Front 7

what is blood pressure?

Back 7

the measure of the amount of force you blood is exerting on the walls of the vessels.

Front 8

what do heart valves prevent?

Back 8

the backward flow of blood in the heart

Front 9

there are 2 ATRIOVENTRICULAR valves between the atrium and the ventricle.

Back 9

tricuspid valve- separates R atrium from R ventricle

mitral valve- separates L atrium from L ventricle.

Front 10

there are 2 SEMILUNAR valves

Back 10

pulmonary semilunar- at exit of right ventricle

aortic semilunar- at exit of left ventricle

Front 11

what is a pulse?

Back 11

the smaller vessel has to expand which is the pulse. (artery needing an arteriole)

Front 12

pathway blood travels through the body

Back 12

heart to arteries to arterioles to capillaries (gas exhange) to venules to veins back to the heart.

Front 13

arteries and veins are distinguished only by the direction in which they carry blood- NOT by the quality of the blood itself.

Back 13

ARTERIES---- AWAY
VEINS---TO

Front 14

cardiac output

Back 14

the volume of blood pumped by the heart PER MINUTE

Front 15

blood vessel response to cardiac output

Back 15

vasodialation- blood vessels expand from increased cardiac output.

vasoconstriction- blood vessels constrict from reduced cardiac output

Front 16

STROKE VOLUME

Back 16

the volume of blood in ML pumped out of the heart with EACH BEAT

Front 17

cardiac output equation (in ML/MIN)

Back 17

heart rate (beats/min) x stroke volume (ml/beat)

Front 18

double circulation

Back 18

humans have double circulation to separate oxygen rich blood from oxygen poor blood.

Front 19

pulmonary circuit

Back 19

oxygen poor blood taken to the lungs to pick up oxygenated blood.

Front 20

systemic circuit

Back 20

oxygen rich blood pumped by the heart to the rest of the body

Front 21

blood is what type of tissue?

Back 21

blood is connective tissue

Front 22

blood is..

Back 22

cells distributed in a liquid matrix called plasma

Front 23

whole blood

Back 23

blood cell + plasma

Front 24

how much blood is circulating through the body?

Back 24

humans have 4-6L circulating in body

Front 25

plasma

Back 25

55% of blood volume

most (90%+) of plasma is water

the other 10% are solutes dissolved in the water, making it viscous (thick)

Front 26

solutes in plasma

Back 26

lipids, salts, vitamins, hormones, waste, plasma proteins

Front 27

plasma proteins have..

Back 27

immunoglobulins (antibodies)- specific proteins produced in response to a foreign substance in the body.

clotting factors- help blood clot

serum- plasma without clotting factors

Front 28

what activates clotting factors?

Back 28

thrombin, an enzyme is needed to activate clotting factors.

Front 29

serum can be used for what?

Back 29

diagnostic material and eye drops

Front 30

blood cells

Back 30

red blood cells (rbc's)

white blood cells (wbc's)

platelets

Front 31

rbc's

Back 31

are also called erythrocytes

they are produced from erythroblasts

THESE ARE NOT PRODUCED FROM MITOSIS MUST BE PRODUCED BY AN ERYTHROBLAST

Front 32

function of red blood cells

Back 32

to carry oxyen which is attached to HEMOGLOBIN (protein) as they pass through lungs.

stacks of red blood cells, called ROULEAUX flow through blood vessels as capillaries and exchange gasses.

Front 33

red blood cell is permeable to

Back 33

water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. they move by DIFFUSION

Front 34

red blood cells lack...

Back 34

mitochondria and nucleus but CAN undergo glycolysis which produces a very small amount of ATP.

Front 35

white blood cells

Back 35

also called leukocytes. less numerous than red blood cells.

they HAVE nuclei and mitochondria.

Front 36

5 types of white blood cells

Back 36

lymphocytes, neutrophils, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils

Front 37

purpose of white blood cells

Back 37

fight infection

Front 38

leukocytes mature in...

Back 38

lymphoid organs... (spleen, thymus, tonsils, adenoids, lymph nodes). we can lose some of these organs but we can not lose them all!

Front 39

platelets

Back 39

produced in bone marrow from a cell called a MEGAKARYOCYTE

Front 40

function of platelets

Back 40

-blood clotting

-store and transport chemicals (serotonin, epinephrine, histamine)

Front 41

end of cardiovascular

Back 41

end of cardiovascular

Front 42

human digestion purpose

Back 42

supply cells with energy in a useful form (ATP)

Front 43

steps to digestion

Back 43

salivation, ingestion, mechanical breakdown, chemical breakdown, metabolize compounds, excrete waste

Front 44

what is a hormone?

Back 44

a chemical substance produced in the body that controls and regulates the activity of certain cells or organs. THE CONTROL.. TELLS ENZYMES WHAT TO DO

Front 45

what is an enzyme?

Back 45

a substance that initiates a chemical reaction

Front 46

what is a true organ?

Back 46

what touches the food or substance directly. (tongue, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus)

Front 47

complete digestion

Back 47

where the food goes in, does not come back up.

Front 48

oral cavity

Back 48

physical and mechanical digestion

smells, taste of food trigger salivary glands to produce saliva

Front 49

saliva contains...

Back 49

mucin- lubricates and protects mouth

buffers- offsets acids in stomach (pH)

bolus- forms ball (food to swollow)

salivary amylase ENZYME- breaks down starch

Front 50

ingested food forms...

Back 50

a bolus- forms ball (food to swollow)

Front 51

pharynx

Back 51

this is a region not a structure

Front 52

what systems join in the pharynx?

Back 52

digestive and respiratory

Front 53

structures in the pharynx

Back 53

epiglottis, glottis, trachea, esophagus

Front 54

esophagus is..

Back 54

a long tube extending between pharynx and stomach

Front 55

the top portion of the esophagus consists of.. while the remainder is..

Back 55

top portion is voluntary skeletal muscle and the remainder is involuntary smooth muscle

Front 56

mammalian digestive tract has a 4 layered wall

Back 56

mucosa- mucosal epithelial layer (innermost)

submucosa -connective tissue (blood vessels and nerves)

muscalaris- smooth muscle

serosa- connective and epithelial tissue (outermost layer)

Front 57

what is perforation?

Back 57

puncturing all four layers which allows bacteria to attack body.

Front 58

what is peristalsis?

Back 58

an action or activity. rhythmic waves of contraction of the smooth muscle sphincters moving digested food in one direction.

Front 59

what is a sphincter?

Back 59

thickened muscular regions that cause peristalsis

Front 60

accessory glands and organs of digestion

Back 60

salivary glands- 3 pair

pancreas

liver

gallbladder

Front 61

stomach

Back 61

functions to store, mix, transport, and chemically breakdown substances

Front 62

how much food can the stomach hold?

Back 62

2L

Front 63

what are the two regions of the stomach?

Back 63

fundus and antrum.

fundus is the upper part closest to the esophagus

antrum is lower part closest to the small intestine

Front 64

HORMONE GASTRIN

Back 64

produces gastric juices (hcl and pepsin)

Front 65

pepsin is...

Back 65

an enzyme that begins the breakdown of proteins

Front 66

food + gastric juice =

Back 66

acid chyme

Front 67

what are the valves/doorways of the stomach?

Back 67

cardiac orifice- regulates food from esophagus into stomach

pyloric sphincter- regulates passage of food from stomach into small intestine

Front 68

how long is the small intestine?

Back 68

about 6m long

Front 69

first 25cm of human small intestine?

Back 69

the duodenum

Front 70

what is the function of the small intestine?

Back 70

breakdown of all classes of macromolecules and nutrient absorbtion

Front 71

what three organs contribute to digestion?

Back 71

pancreas, liver, and gallbladder

Front 72

what is the function of the pancreas?

Back 72

produce ENZYMES and alkaline bicarbonate to offset acidity of acid chyme from stomach. turns acid chyme into just chyme

Front 73

what is the digestive role of the liver?

Back 73

bile production which is needed to emulsify lipids. lipids are hydrophobic intestines are hydrophilic. bile helps digest the lipids.

Front 74

what is the function of the gallbladder?

Back 74

bile storage

Front 75

how do substances digest in the small intestine?

Back 75

acid chyme plus the products of the accessory organs chemically break down nutrients. allows the small intestine to absorb nutrients

Front 76

4 HORMONES OF DIGESTION

Back 76

GASTRIN

SECRETIN- releases bicarbonate from pancreas

CCK- releases bile from liver/gallbladder

ENTEROGASTRONE- inhibits peristalsis to allow the absorbtion of nutrients

Front 77

large intestine is connected to the small intestine by what?

Back 77

the t shaped junction (ileocecal junction)

Front 78

one short arm of the t is called the..

Back 78

cecum. the appendix protrudes from this location

Front 79

function of the colon

Back 79

reabsorbtion of water- 7L daily

as water is reabsorbed the remaining organic matter or feces is compacted. (becomes more solid)

takes 12-24 hrs for materials to travel length of colon

Front 80

rectum

Back 80

terminal portion of colon, more layers of muscle

Front 81

anus

Back 81

opening of the rectum

Front 82

e.Coli

Back 82

intestinal bacteria which live symbiotically on orgain matter of colon

bacteria produce vitamin k as a bi-product of their metabolism

Front 83

diarrhea vs constipation

Back 83

too litter water absorbtion- diarrhea

too much water absorbtion- constipation

Front 84

end of digestion

Back 84

end of digestion

Front 85

asexual reproduction

Back 85

a form of reproduction that does not require the union of egg and sperm to form a zygote (no meiosis)

offspring are genetically identical to the parent

minimizes genetic diversity

oldest means of reproduction on the planet

Front 86

examples of asexual reproduction

Back 86

budding- new individual buds from parent.

fragmentation- dividing one into two

regeneration- regrowth of a body part

Front 87

parthenogensis

Back 87

female egg develops without being fertilized by sperm. have no sex chromosomes. 100% female

Front 88

sexual reproduction

Back 88

requires the fusion of a male and female gamete (meiosis) to form a diploid zygote

increases genetic diversity

Front 89

heterogamy

Back 89

some organisms have the ability to switch between parthenogensis (asexual) and sexual reproduction depending on environmental conditions

Front 90

simultaneous hermaphroditism

Back 90

individuals have functional male and female reproductive organs. common in sessile and burrowing organisms. NOT AN ACCIDENT.

Front 91

sequential hermaphroditism

Back 91

organisms switch sexes during lifecycle

protogynous- born female switch to male

protandrous- born male switch to female

may or may not switch

Front 92

external fertilization

Back 92

eggs are shed out of female then fertilized by male gamete

many eggs produced
few embryos survive
requires a MOIST enviornment

Front 93

internal fertilization

Back 93

sperm deposited in female reproductive tract

one/few eggs fertilized
high survival rate
cooperative behavior

Front 94

oviparity

Back 94

females lay eggs which develop outside the mother

Front 95

ovoviviparity

Back 95

females give birth to live young which are hatched inside mother

good for if you are always on the move like sharks or snakes

Front 96

viviparity

Back 96

females give birth to live young which required nourishment from mom, through a placenta umbilical chord

no hard shell eggs, (humans)

Front 97

external genitalia

Back 97

scrotum (temp regulation)

penis (organ of copulation)

Front 98

internal organs

Back 98

testes, epididymis, vas deferens, urethra

Front 99

testes

Back 99

sperm production within seminiferous tubules

Front 100

epididymis

Back 100

sperm maturation

Front 101

vas deferns

Back 101

duct through which sperm travels out of epididymis

Front 102

urethra

Back 102

tube connecting and draining urinary and reproductive systems

Front 103

male reproductive glands

Back 103

glands contribute to secretions to sperm forming semen.

seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethal gland

Front 104

seminal vesicles

Back 104

make sperm motile, repress female immunity (60%)

Front 105

prostate gland

Back 105

nourish sperm (25%)

Front 106

bulbourethal glands

Back 106

neutralizes pH of urethra (15%). makes a safe passageway for sperm

Front 107

female reproductive organs

Back 107

ovaries, ovulation, corpus luteum

Front 108

ovaries

Back 108

egg production and storage, female gonads

Front 109

follicles

Back 109

eggs contained within ovaries are nourished and protected by follicles.

Front 110

ovulation

Back 110

egg expelled from follicle

Front 111

remaining follicle grows within ovary as a mass of tissue called what?

Back 111

corpus luteum

Front 112

corpus luteum

Back 112

secretes HORMONE PROGESTERONE; this later disintegrates if the egg is not fertilized.

Front 113

primary oocytes (~40000) are present when?

Back 113

prior to birth. secondary oocytes are released during ovulation

Front 114

oviduct

Back 114

ducts leading out of ovaries, egg travles through duct

Front 115

uterus

Back 115

site where egg implants for development. lining is ENDOMETRIUM

Front 116

cervix

Back 116

opening of uterus

Front 117

vagina

Back 117

birth canal; copulatory organ

Front 118

what is shed during the menstrual cycle?

Back 118

endometrium

Front 119

sex hormones

Back 119

a chemical substance produced in the body that controls activities of cells or organs

Front 120

MALE HORMONE- TESTOSTERONE

Back 120

important for development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics. primary is actual organs, secondary is responsible for puberty

Front 121

MALE HORMONE- GnRH

Back 121

secreted in hypothalamus, regulates production of...

Front 122

MALE HORMONE- LH

Back 122

secreted by pituitary gland, stimulates production of testosterone

Front 123

MALE HORMONE- FSH

Back 123

secreted by pituitary gland, stimulates sperm production in testes.

Front 124

LOOK AT DIAGRAM MADE IN CLASS

Back 124

ON BACK OF PAGE 13

Front 125

female hormones

Back 125

hormones coordinated the menstrual and ovarian cycle

Front 126

FEMALE HORMONE-GnRH

Back 126

screted in hypothalamus; stimulates production of...

Front 127

FEMALE HORMONE- FSH

Back 127

stimulates follicle development

Front 128

FEMALE HORMONE- LH

Back 128

triggers ovulation

Front 129

estrogen and progesterone

Back 129

secreted by corpus luteum

inhibits GnRH (which then limits FSH, LH)

maintains endometrium

development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics

Front 130

HCG

Back 130

not produced by female, only embryo.

embryonic hormone- maintains secretion of estrogen, progesterone by corpus luteum through first trimester of pregnancy

Front 131

LOOK AT SPERM STRUCTURE ON PAGE 15

Back 131

memorize acrosome, head, midpiece, tail

Front 132

head of sperm

Back 132

contains nucleus and acrosome

Front 133

middle piece

Back 133

contains mitochondria

Front 134

tail

Back 134

beating flagellum

Front 135

acrosome of sperm contains..

Back 135

digestive enzymes

needed to penetrate 2 barriers surrounding egg (corona radiata, zona pellucida)

Front 136

only one sperm can fertilize an egg

Back 136

egg cell uses two strategies

fast block to polyspermy- depolarization of egg membrane

slow block to polyspermy- inactivation of receptors on egg membrane

Front 137

science defines conception as...

Back 137

the nucleus of the sperm hits the cytoplasm of the egg

Front 138

after egg has been fertilized...

Back 138

the events that occur are
-cleavage
-gastrulation
-organogensis

Front 139

cleavage (to split)

Back 139

withiin a few hours of fertilization

zygote rapidly divides

no embryonic growth

morula to blastula (blastocell)

Front 140

gastrulation

Back 140

blastula to gastrula, notochord develops.

notochord all vertebrates have hollow nerve chord running down spinal chord.

Front 141

3 layers in gastrula

Back 141

ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm

Front 142

organogensis

Back 142

organ development

Front 143

positive pressure breathing

Back 143

(frogs) - does not utilize chest wall/ diaphragm, instead this requires the gulping and swallowing of air

Front 144

negative pressure breathing

Back 144

(reptiles, birds mammals) - utilize diaphragm and chest muscles to breathe

Front 145

inhilitaion

Back 145

diaphragm contracts, increases the volume of thoracic cavity

Front 146

exhalation

Back 146

diaphragm relaxes, decreases volume of thoracic cavity

Front 147

residual volume

Back 147

small amount of air in the lungs after breathing out

Front 148

respiration

Back 148

exchange of gasses, oxygen and carbon dioxide

Front 149

breathing

Back 149

the alternate inhalation and exhalation of air

Front 150

respiratory cycle

Back 150

inhalation + exhalation (one cycle is one breath in and one breath out)

Front 151

tidal volume

Back 151

in humans is about 500mL (amount of air exchanged in the respiratory cycle)

Front 152

vital capacity

Back 152

the maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximum inhilation

Front 153

pathway of air

Back 153

nasal/ oral cavity, pharynx, bronchi (left and right), bronchioles (branches network of air passages leading into the lungs), alveoli.

Front 154

alveoli

Back 154

the site of gas exchange

pulmonary capillaries surround alveoli

most oxygen entering the blood combines with hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin

Front 155

who was the father of evolution?

Back 155

charles darwin

published on the origin of species by means of natural selections

was a naturalist on the HSM beagle from 1831-1836

Front 156

prior to darwin

Back 156

creationism was the accepted idea on how life originated

species were static, or extinction was not considered

earth was though to be around 6000 years old

Front 157

what is evolution?

Back 157

process by which the characteristics of a population change over time through inheritance

Front 158

population

Back 158

a group of individuals of the same species living in the same defined area

Front 159

evolution is a scientific..

Back 159

THEORY not a fact. but has substantial evidence.

not a term used by darwin

Front 160

scientific theory

Back 160

a hypothesis that has been rigorously tested through the scientific method with little modification and has abundant data to support the hypothesis

Front 161

scientist who influenced darwin

Back 161

cuvier- made fossil discoveries, identified extinct species, showed the species were able to become extinct which intrigued darwin.

lamarck- acquired charateristics hypothesis. (soft inheritance) animals gained traits because of the enviornment and could pass them onto their offspring.

lyell- principles of geology, proved that earth was a couple mill years old through the study of rocks.

Front 162

Alfred Russel Wallace

Back 162

influenced darwin and was the closest to his findings, he formulated a similar theory but allowed darwin to state his findings because he has much more evidence and proof.

Front 163

4 mechanisms of evolution

Back 163

mutation
genetic drift
migration
natural selection

Front 164

mutation

Back 164

2 types
-point mutations
-chromosomal alterations

results from an error in the DNA copying process
-can be spontaneous or ENVIRONMENTALLY driven

Front 165

genetic drift

Back 165

random change in allele frequencies in a population.

more important evolutionary factor in small populations

Front 166

special cases of genetic drift

Back 166

founder effect- a new population breaks off from the source population and creates a bigger diversity for that species

bottleneck- often due to famine, disease, or rapid environmental change

Front 167

migration

Back 167

also known as gene flow

influence by the mobility of the species

influenced by geographic behaviors

example- wind carries seeds far beyond the bounds of the parent plant population.

Front 168

essential conditions for natural selection

Back 168

variations for a trait

the trait must be heritable

differential reproductive success

Front 169

natural selection IS

Back 169

a selective process of change through time in a population

a change in the alleles of a population

environmentally dependent

a driving force of evolution

Front 170

natural selection is NOT

Back 170

directed by a guiding hand

survival of the fittest. fittest means how many offspring left behind. not the strength of an animal

production of perfection

humans evolving from monkeys (we all evolved from something prior)

Front 171

5 rules of natural selection

Back 171

populations tend to increase indefinitely in a geometric ratio

populations numbers must stabilize at a certain level- lack of resources prevent the population from increasing to infinity

there is a struggle for existence- not all organisms can survive

there is variation within each species

as organisms struggle to survive those individuals that are better adapted to the environment leave behind more offspring than those that are less adapted- organisms are "more fit"

Front 172

artificial selection

Back 172

the process of intentional or unintentional modification of a species through HUMAN ACTIONS which encourage the breeding of certain inherited traits over others (corn crop)

Front 173

sexual selection

Back 173

acts on an organisms ability to obtain (often by any means necessary!) and successfully copulate with a mate.

true natural selection

Front 174

evidence for evolution

Back 174

fossil record
comparative anatomy
biogeography
dna comparisons

Front 175

convergence of evidence

Back 175

no one piece of evidence alone is enough to form a theory. instead there has to be an aggregate supply of evidence in order to turn a hypothesis into a theory.

Front 176

fossil record

Back 176

gradual transition in the fossil record from simple organisms to complex organisms

older rock strata has less complex fossils newer rock strata have more complex fossils but retain some of the characteristics of the earlier fossils

shows link between species for the theory of evolution. linking fossils from old - new allows us to realized that each species has led to another.

Front 177

comparative embryology

Back 177

useful for vertebrate animals as evidence for evolution

embryonic stage of vertebrates is similar in early development.

mid stage development is more alike for more related species

limit- only to support evolution for vertebrates

late stage development shows definite difference

individual patterns of development repeat the ancestral pattern of development

Front 178

biogeography

Back 178

distribution of life on earth

species are distributed around the globe largely in relation to their relationships to one annother

if life form arose independently it would make more sense for them to exist wherever an environment could support them as opposed to being distributed according to their apparent relationship to other life forms