Textbook Chapter 1 And 2

Front 1

Define psychology

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the scientific study of behavior and the mind

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behavior refers to...

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actions and responses that we can directly observe

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mind refers to..

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the internal states and processes that cannot be seen directly and must be inferred from observable, measurable responses

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clinical psychology is

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the study and treatment of mental disorders

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cognitive psychology...

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specializes in the study of mental processes, especially from a model that views the mind as an information processor.

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biopsychology/neuroscience focuses on...

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the biological underpinnings of behaviour

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developmental psychology examines

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human physical, psychological and social development across the lifespan

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Experimental psychology focuses on...

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such basic processes as learning, sensory systems, perception, and motivational states

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Industrial-organizational psychology examines...

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peoples behaviour in the workplace

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Personality psychology focuses on...

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the study of human personality

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Social Psychology examines..

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peoples thoughts, feelings, and behaviour pertaining to the social world: the world of other people

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Empirical evidence is..

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evidence gained through experience and observation

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confirmation bias is

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selectively paying attention to information that is consistent with our beliefs and downplaying or ignoring info that is inconsistent with them

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what are psychology's goals?

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1) to describe how people and other animals behave

2) to explain and understand the causes of these behaviours

3) to predict how people and animals will behave under certain conditions

4) to influence or control behaviour through knowledge and control of its causes to enhance human welfare

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Basic research is...

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The quest for knowledge purely for its own sake

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Applied research is..

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research designed to solve specific practical problems

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behaviours and it's causes can be examined at a...

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1) biological level - brain processes, genetic influences etc

2) psychological level - our thoughts feelings and motives

3) environmental level - past and current physical and social environments to which we are exposed

Front 18

mind-body interactions are:

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The relations between mental processes in the brain and the functioning of other bodily systems

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mind-body dualism is

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the belief that the mind is a spiritual entity not subject to physical laws that govern the body

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monism believes that

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the mind and body are one and that the mind is not a separate spiritual entity

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British empiricism believed that

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observation is more valid approach to knowledge than pure reason as there is lots of potential errors with reason

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psychophysics is

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the study of how psychologically experienced sensations depend on the characteristics of physical stimuli

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structuralism is

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the analysis of the mind in terms of its basic elements

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functionalism supported the idea that...

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psychology should study the functions of consciousness rather than its strucutre

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functionalism lead to which types of psychology?

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1) cognitive psychology -studies mental processes

2) evolutionary psychology - emphasizes the adaptiveness of behavior

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The psychodynamic perspective searches for?

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the causes of behaviour within the inner workings of our personality, emphasizing the role of unconscious processes

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who developed the most influential psychodynamic perspective?

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Sigmund Freud

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psychoanalysis is

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the analysis of internal and primarily unconscious psychological forces

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Why did Frued's psychoanalysis theory stir controversy?

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1) it was difficult to test

2) many disagreed with its heavy emphasis on childhood sexuality

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the behavioural perspective focuses on...

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the role of the external environment in governing our actions

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Behaviourism is

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a school of thought that emphasizes environmental control of behaviour through learning

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who was a leading 20th century behaviorist?

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B.F. Skinner

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Behaviour modification aimed for?

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decreasing problem behaviours and increasing positive behaviours by manipulating environmental factors

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Cognitive behaviourism believes that

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learning experiences and the environment affect our behavior by giving us the info we need to behave effectively

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The humanistic perspective emphasizes what?

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free will, personal growth, and the attempt to find meaning in ones existence

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what is the personal goal in a humanistic perspective?

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Self-actualization - the reaching of ones individual potential

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what is the positive psychology movement?

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an emphasis on the study of human strengths, fulfillment and optimal living

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The cognitive perspective examines..

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the nature of the mind and how mental processes influence behaviour

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Gestalt psychology examined..

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how the mind organizes elements of experience into a unified "whole" expression

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cognitive psychology focuses on...

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the study of mental processes

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cognitive neuroscience...

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uses sophisticated electrical recording and brain-imaging techniques to examine brain activity while people engage in cognitive tasks

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sociocultural perspective examines..

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how the social environment and cultural learning influence our behavior, thoughts, and feelings

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culture refers to

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the enduring values, beliefs, behaviours, and traditions that are shared by a large group of people and passed from one generation to the next.

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cultural psychology explores....

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how culture is transmitted to its members and examines psychological similarities and differences among people from diverse cultures

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individualism has

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an emphasis on personal goals and self-identity based primarily on one's own attributes and achievement

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collectivism is where

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individual goals are subordinated to those of the group and personal identity is defined largely by the ties that bind one to the extended family and other social groups

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biological perspective examines

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how brain processes and other bodily functions regulate behaviour

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behavioural science / physiological psychology examines

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brain processes and other physiological functions that underlie our behavior, sensory experiences, emotions and thoughts

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neurotransmitters are

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chemicals released by nerve cells that allow them to communicate with one another

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behaviour genetics is

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the study of how behavioural tendencies are influenced by genetic factors

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natural selection is where

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an inherited trait gives certain members an advantage over others, these members will be more likely to survive and pass on these characteristics to their offspring

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evolutionary psychologists...

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stress that human mental abilities and behavioural tendencies evolved along with a changing body

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sociobiology believes that

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complex social behaviours are also built into the human species as products of evolution

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what are the different levels of analysis

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biological, psychological and environmental

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in order to get a full understanding of behavior...

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we often have to move back and forth between the different levels of analysis

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the behvaioural view believes that

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depression is a reaction to a non-rewarding environment

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diffusion of responsibility is

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a psychological state in which each person feels deceases personal responsibility for intervening

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A hypothesis is

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a specific predication about some phenomenon that often takes form of an "if-then" statement

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A theory is

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a set of formal statements that explains how and why certain events are related to one another

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a good theory has all of these components

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1) incorporates existing facts and observations with a single broad framework

2) It is testable

3) the predictions made by theory are supported by findings of a new research

4)it conforms to the law of parsimony

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The law of parsimony is

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if two theories can explain and predict the same phenomena equally well, the simpler theory is the preferred one

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operational definition

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defines a variable in terms of the specific procedure used to produce or measure it

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self report measures are

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when people report their own knowledge, beliefs, feelings, experiences or behaviour

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social desirability bias is

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the tendency to respond in a socially acceptable manner rather than according to how one truly feels or behaves

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unobtrusive measures ...

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record behaviour in a way that keeps participants unaware that certain responses are being measured

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archival measures are

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records or documents that already exist

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descriptive research seeks to

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identify how humans and other animals behave particularly in natural settings

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a case study is

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an in-depth analysis of an individual, a group or an event

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The ventral and dorsal stream independently process what?

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visual object recognition and action

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naturalistic observation is when

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the researcher observes behaviour as it occurs in a natural setting, and attempts to avoid influencing that behaviour

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when studying school bullying they found that

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Even when school mates were present 88% of the time, only 19% intervened in the bullying episodes

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Habituation is

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when over time, animals or people adapt or ignore the presence of an observer

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survey research is when

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information about a topic is obtained by administering questionnaires or interviews to many people

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a population consists of

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all the individuals whom we are interested in drawing a conclusion from

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a sample is

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a subject of individuals drawn from the larger population of interest

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a representative sample is

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one that reflects the important characteristics of the population

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random sampling is when

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every member of the population has an equal probability of being chosen to participate in the survey

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stratified random sampling is when

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the population is divided into subgroups based on such characteristics as gender or ethnic identity

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what is the major problem with internet questionnaires?

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a sample bias can occur because, unlike randomly dialing telephone numbers, there is no method for randomly sampling the population of internet users

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the 1st component of correlational research

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the researcher measures one variable (x), such as peoples birth order

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the 2nd component of correlational research

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the researcher measures a second variable (y), such as a personality trait

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the 3rd component of correlational research

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the researcher statistically determined whether x an y are related

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bidirectionality problem is

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an interpretive problem where you must consider x the cause for y, and vice versa or that both variables have influence eachother

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the third variable problem is

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when a third variable, z, is responsible for what looks like a relation between x and y

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correlational coefficient is

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a statistic that indicates the direction and strength of the relation between two variables

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a positive correlation is

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when the higher score on one variable is associated with the higher score on a second variable

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a negative correlation is

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when higher scores on one variable are associated with lower scores on a second variable

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scatterplots are

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graphs that show the correlation between two variables

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the 1st component of an experiment is

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the researcher manipulates one or more variables

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the 2nd component of an experiment is

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the researcher measures whether this manipulation influences other variables

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the 3rd component of an experiment is

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the researcher attempts to control extraneous factors that might influence the outcome of the experiment

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an independent variable refers to

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the factors that is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter

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a dependent variable refers to

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the factor that is measured by the experimenter and that may be influenced by the independent variable

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experimental group is

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the group that recieves a treatment or an active level of independent variable

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the control group is

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not exposed to the treatment or receives a zero-level of the independent variable

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between groups/subjects design is when

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each group in the experiment is composed of a different set of participants

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random assignment is

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a procedure in which each participant has an equal likelihood of being assigned to any one group within an experiment

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repeated measures (or within subjects) design is when

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each participant is exposed to all the conditions of an independent variable

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counterbalancing is

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a procedure in which the order of conditions is varied so that no condition has an overall advantage relative to the others

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the concept of interaction means that

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the way in which one independent variable influences the dependent variable differs depending on the various conditions of another independent variable

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validity refers to

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how well an experimental procedure actually tests what it is designed to test

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Internal validity represents

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the degree to which an experiment supports clear casual conclusions (how many flaws are present)

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external validity is

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the degree to which the results of a study can be generalized to other populations, settings and conditions (young drivers talking on cell phone vs experienced drivers talking on cell phone)

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confounding of variables means that

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two variables are intertwined in such a way that we cannot determine which one has influenced a dependent variable

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placebo effect is

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when people receiving treatment show a change in behaviour because of their expectations, not because the treatment itself had any specific benefit

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experimenter expectancy effects refers to

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the subtle and unintentional ways researchers influence their participants to respond in a manner that is consistent with the researchers hypothesis

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double-blind procedure is when

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both the participant and the experimenter are kept blind as to which experimental condition the participant is in, simultaneously minimizes participant placebo effects and experimenter expectancy effects

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replication is

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the process of repeating a study to determine whether the original findings can be duplicated

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meta-analysis is

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a statistical procedure for combining the results of different studies that examine the same topic to test the overall significance of its findings

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cross-cultural replication is

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when you examine whether findings generalize across different cultures

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incomplete disclosure or decepetion occurs when

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participants are misled about the nature of a study

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debriefed is

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when participants are told the true purpose of the study at the end of the experiment, typically done after deception