Testing

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Kabul

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The capital of Afghanistan, in the East.

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Herat

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One of largest cities in Afghanistan, in the West. Located on an ancient trading root.

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Pushtun

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an Eastern Iranian ethno-linguistic group that makes up 40% of Afghanistan’s population. Also called Pathan and Pashto. An ethnic group that is made up of many tribes. Sunni

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Tajiks

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A minority group in Afghanistan coming from Tajikistan in the north.

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Uzbeks

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A Turkic people from Uzbekistan from the Northwest. Also a minority group.

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Taliban

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students of fundamentalism that rose to power after the Soviets left. They were Pashto who flet to Pakistan during the occupation. Rooted in Wahabi Islam, but “took it further”. This gave Islam a bad name in the west.

Front 7

Osama bin Ladin

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Fought against the Russian occupation. Formed Al-Qaeda.

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Mujahidin

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A group that was against the Soviet invasion in 1979. They were financed by the United States.

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Hamid Karzai

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Former supporter of the Taliban, but now President of Afghanistan, since 2004. Characterized by his Karakul hat.

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Herodotus (5th cnet BCE)

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A Greek historian (father of history) who lived in the 5th century BC and wrote extensively about the ancient world.

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Upper Egypt

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Southern Egypt

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Lower Egypt

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Northern Egypt including the Nile delta

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Delta

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Where the Nile River spreads out and drains into the Mediterranean Sea. Has rich agricultural value and a mild Mediterranean climate.

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Menes = Narmer

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The Egyptian pharaoh who united Upper and Lower Egypt in 3000 BC

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Memphis

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Founded in 3100 by Narmer (Menes) as the capital of a unified Egypt.

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dynasty

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chains of related rulers who ruled Egypt

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pharaoh

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A ruler of unified Egypt, deified as divine.

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Gizeh

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A city west of Cairo, is site of pyramids from 2500 BCE, large funerary complexes

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Old Kingdom (2700-2180 BCE)

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The name commonly given to that period in the 3rd millennium BC when Egypt attained its first continuous peak of civilization in complexity and achievement.

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Cheops = Khufu

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Who the Great Pyramid was built for, built by Egyptians not slaves, 90 mil cubic feet

Front 21

hierohlyphs

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Egyptian writing system, around 3000 BCE, may have been influenced by Mesopotamians, for mundane things, written on stone and papyrus

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papyrus

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The papyrus plant once grew throughut the uncultivated marshes of the nile. Papyrus was important throughout Egypts early islamic periods for copying lettters, documents, literary works. The availability of the paper spurred the writing down of literature like The Thousand and One Nights.

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Coptic

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Language from hieroglyphs turned into greek characters. It was spoken alongside arabic until 1200 AD

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Rosetta Stone

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It has multiple languages on it and was a main clue for decyphering hieroglyphs. It was found by one of Napoleon's soldiers.

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Napoleon 1798

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British and French were struggling with eachother for control of the world. Napoleon realizes te strategic importance of Egypt and decides that it must be invaded to defeat the British.. The Mamlouks were totally surprised by Napoleon's invasion. They had only had egypt for 2-3 years.

Front 26

Description de l'Egypte

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A series of publications that detailed a scientific understanding of ancient and modern egypt. They were compiled by the savants that were with napoleon when he invaded.

Front 27

Jean-Francois Champollion (1822)

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He deciphers hieroglyphs. He is considered the father of Egyptology.

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Akhenaten (r. 1367-1350 BCE)

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He was a pharaoh of 8th dynasty egypty and destroyed the previous conceptin of the gods in favor of worshipping the sun disk god (aten). This was one of the first monotheistic traditions.

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Tutankamen (r.1334-1325 BCE)

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He was a rather insignificant new kingdom egyptian pharaoh.19 when he died--tomb found in 1922.It was the fully intact tomb that made him famous. Discovered by Howard Carter.

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Howard Carter

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Archaeologist who discovered the tomb of king tut.

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Lord Carnarvon

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He financed howard carter to find the tomb.

Front 32

Nefertiti (r.1380-1340 BCE)

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Wife of Akhenaten.

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Ptah

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Egyptian Mythology: He called creation into being and is the god of craftsman. god of memphis,

Front 34

Thoth

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god of wisdom, god of scribes

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Bes

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Household love dwarf, fertility, protection of children

Front 36

Bastet

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lioness war deity goddess in egyptian mythology.

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Book of the Dead

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ancient egyptian funerary tect which is a description of their concept of afterlife along with instructions to allow the deceased to pass through these obstacles. It was written on papyrus and placed in the burial chamber of the dead.

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Mesopotamia

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Land between rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates; the so-called cradle of civilization 

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Tigris

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Eastern of the two rivers of Mesopotamia; flows from Turkey through Iraq to the Persian Gulf 

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Euphrates

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Western of the great Mesopotamian rivers; also flows from Turkey through Iraq, into the Persian Gulf 

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Sumer

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earliest known civilization of the ancient Near East, around 4th millennium BCE; located in lower Mesopotamia 

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Sumerian

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a unique language, it is the first instance of writing; it was invented for record-keeping purposes; the language died out around 2000 BCE 

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Cuneiform

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means “wedge shape”; Sumerian writing was made using cuneiform script pressed into wet clay (4000BCE) 

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An

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In Sumerian mythology, An (also Anu) is the god of the sky and the king of the gods. He was usually depicted as a jackal in art.

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Enlil

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The chieft deity of Sumerian and Akkadians, Enlil is the god of the wind and god of breath.

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Catal Huyuk

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Largest, best preserved settlement in Southern Anatolia (modern day Turkey) from around 7500 BCE (Neolithic era)

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Ur

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Sumerian city, now in Iraq, Ur was a coastal city near mouth of Euphrates. The Great Ziggurat in Ur believed to be a temple to the Sumerian gods. Iur is also considered to be the birthplace of Abraham

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Hellenism

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The period after Alexander the Great established his empire across the Middle East that was characterized by a spread of Greek influence and culture. During this time Greek cities were established throughout the Middle East and cities like Alexandria were built as beacons of Greek culture. Between the death of Alexander in 323 BC and the spread of the Roman empire in 146 BC

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sexagesimal

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An ancient numeral system based on sixty, It originated in ancient Samaria and was transmitted to the Babylonians

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mud brick

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Material of construction for ziggurats. Used to Build Ancient Sumerian Cities, there are still remains of them today, The Great Mosque of Djenne in Mali is made of them

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ziggurat

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A temple tower that was in the shape of A pyramid build by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Elamites, and Assyrians of ancient Mesopotamia. This ancient temple used mud bricks for its construction

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Akkadians

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Ancient Near Eastern empire centered around the city of Akkad, Region is Mesopotamia, center AROUND Euphrates

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Akkadian (Semitic)

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Language that the Akkadians Spoke. Form of writing Babylonian people adopted

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Babylonia

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Ancient kingdom in lower Mesopotamia, Capital city Babylon, created by the Amorites

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Hammurapi (r. 1792-1750 BCE)

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Was the 6th king of Babylon but the first of the Babylonian Empire, Basically, he created the Babylonian Empire by growing it all over southern Mesopotamia

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lex talionis

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Ancient Legal system which centered around retaliating equally, Eye for an eye, completely based on equal distribution, It was the earliest written form of a law written by Hammurabi

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Assyria

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Located on the upper Tigris river, ancient regional empire. In Upper Mesopotamia. Brought about Early Iron Age

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Alexander the Great (d.323 BCE)

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One of the greatest military commanders of all time who grew the Macedon Empire. Conquered much of what was known to the ancient Greeks. Much of the Conquest happened in Middle East

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Alexandria

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City Named After Alexander the Great in Egypt. Located in Northern Egypt along the coast. Geography term

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Greek Miracle

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Brake away belief that the Gods did not control people anymore or the world around them, Started looking at things naturally

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Epic of Gilgamesh

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One of the oldest known works of literary fiction. Epic Poem of Mesopotamian culture. Came from legends of Sumerians and their mythical hero king Gilgamesh

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Gilgamesh

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The son of Lugalbanda and the fifth king of Uruk.Tried to conquer death. Central Character of the Epic of Gilgamesh. Mother was Ninsun who was a goddesses, making him twothirds god and one third human. Associate with Enkidu, Inanna, Ishtar.

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Enkidu

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Central character in Epic of Gilgamesh who is wild, being raised by animals and not knowing anything about human society untie prostitute Shamat/Inanna has sex with him. Kind of Gilgamesh’s soul mate. Killed by the goddess Inannan

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Inanna

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Goddess in Epic of Gilgamesh who he does not have sex with. She does bad things to the men when she is done with them. Kills Enkidu. Sumerian goddess of sexual love, fertility, and warfare. Very wrathful

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Ishtar

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Inanna’s name in the Epic of Gilgamesh

Front 66

Abu Bakr (r.632-634)

Back 66

The first Caliph that ruled after Muhammad died who did not specify an heir to the umma. He was an early convert to Islam and a senior companion and confidante to Muhammad. He was chosen by a majority of the muslims at the time, but a group who would later become the shiis saw Ali as the rightful heir, this eventually led to the split between the sunnis and the shiis later on.

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Umar (634-644)

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The second Caliph that ruled, appointed by Abu Bakr before he died. He began invading other regions around the peninsila, during his reign, the Islamic empire grew, taking Mesopotamia and parts of Persia, Egypt, Palestine, Syria, North Africa and Armenia.

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Uthman (644-656)

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The third Caliph. An early convert to Islam, he played a major role in early Islamic history, most notably as the third Caliph of the Rashidun Empire and in the compilation of the Qur'an.

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Ali (656-661

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The fourth Caliph, although some (later the shiis) believed that he sould have been the first. He was one of Muhammads closest relatives, his cousin and his son in law (husband of Fatima, Muhammad's daughter). He's a central figure in the shii branch, and the first Imam.

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"Rightly Guided"

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Refers to the first four Caliphs. The concept of "Rightly Guided Caliphs" originated with the Abbasid Dynasty, a reference to the Sunni tradition, "Hold firmly to my example (sunnah) and that of the Rightly Guided Caliphs", I.e. those who kept to the right path.

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636: Damascus falls

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Damascus was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate during the reign of Umar by forces under Khaled ibn al-Walid in 636 CE. The city then became the capital of the Umayyad Empire, which extended from Spain to India.

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638: Jerusalem falls

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In 638, the Islamic Caliphate, under the rule of Umar, extended its dominion to Jerusalem. Jerusalem is considered Islam's third holiest city after Mecca and Medina.

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639: Fustat falls

Back 73

Fustat was the first capital of Egypt under Arab rule. It was built by the Arab general 'Amr ibn al-'As under the Caliph Umar immediately after the Arab conquest of Egypt in 639 CE, and featured the Mosque of Amr, the first mosque ever built in Egypt.

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652: Qadisiyya falls

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It was the decisive engagement between the Arab Muslim army and the Sassanid Persian army during the first period of Muslim expansion which resulted in the Islamic conquest of Persia. The last Persian emperor was killed in 653 during the reign of Caliph Uthman, with his death Sassanid Persian empire ceased to exist.

Front 75

Qadisiyyat Saddam

Back 75

Arabs defeated Persians. The most notable use of Qādisiyyah’s emotive power was the dubbing by Ṣaddām Ḥusayn of Iran-Iraq war as Qādisiyyat-Ṣaddām (Ṣaddām’s Qādisiyyah). Saddam used the defeat in 652 to justify the invasion of Iran.

Front 76

jizya

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A special tax that non-muslims had to pay to the Muslim rulers, since the Muslim conquests expanded to areas with many different religions. This was to be compensation for military service.

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Tariq

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A Berber Muslim and Umayyad general who led the conquest of Visigoth Hispania in 711 A.D.

Front 78

711: Gibraltar

Back 78

After Tariq had landed on Gibraltar, a city south of nowaday Spain, began an invasion. He won a victory at the battle of Guadalete, and was made of Hispania but called back to Damascus by the Ummayyad Caliph.

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732: Tours/Poitier

Back 79

The last place where the Arab/Muslim conquest reached in Europe before they were stopped in between Poitier and Tours because of Charles Martel's army. Some historians regard it as a key battle, for if Martel couldn't stop the conquest, the Arabization and Islamisization would've most likely continued through Europe.

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Charles Martel

Back 80

French general who stopped the Arab's invasion to France. He is the grandfather of Charabmay (Charles I).

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Byzantine Empire

Back 81

Prior to the Arab conquests, this Greek-speaking Christian empire (descended from the split of the Roman Empire into east and west) based in Constantinople controlled much of the Middle East. They contested the area with the Sassanids. Persecuted non-Christian subjects.

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Sassanids

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Persian empire whose state religion was Zoroastrianism. Centralized, but exercised little control over its territories, including the Middle East. Both the Byzantines and Sassanids were weakened by centuries of fighting over the region, and quickly lost territory to the Arabs.

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Ctesiphon

Back 83

Capital of the Sassanids. Its location is near what is now Baghdad.

Front 84

Caliph

Back 84

Office of leader of the ummah. Not a successor to the prophetic role of Muhammad, only his political office. In the early days of Islam, chosen by the consensus of the community. After the four rightly-guided caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and 'Ali), when a usurper (the founder of the Umayyads) took over, Shi'ites and Sunnis have disagreed on who should be caliph. The title was later used by the Ottomans.

Front 85

Bethleham

Back 85

Birthplace of Jesus. Located in the West Bank.

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Nazareth

Back 86

Where Jesus and his family spent the majority of their time. Located in the north of the state of Israel.

Front 87

Pompey 63 BC

Back 87

Pompey was a Roman general. In 63 BC, he conquered much of the Near East, including Palestine, thus incorporating it into the Roman Empire. The Roman occupation provided this area with a lot of infrastructure (i.e. paved roads, which were built for the transport of soldiers), which became important trade routes.

Front 88

Herod the Great

Back 88

Herod the Great was Jewish local of Palestine who served as a client king for the Romans. According to the Gospel of Matthew, Herod was responsible fo the Massacre of the Innocents, the execution of all young boys in the village of Bethlehem; this was done in order to kill Jesus before he could become King of the Jews and take Herod's throne.

Front 89

Joseph

Back 89

Joseph was the father of Jesus and husband of Mary. He is the patron saint of workers.

Front 90

Mary

Back 90

Mary was the mother of Jesus and wife of Joseph. She conceived by the Holy Spirit as a virgin, while she was betrothed to Joseph.

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John the Baptist

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John the Baptist was a wandering prophet who preached to the people. He baptized Jesus in the Jordan River; Jesus' encounter with John the Baptist had a profound effect on him and prompted him to begin his own career as a wandering preacher.

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Judas

Back 92

Judas was one of the twelve Apostles of Jesus. He is the disciple that betrays Jesus to the Roman authorities.

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Pontius Pilate

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Pontius Pilate was the procurator, or local governor, of the Roman province of Judea during the time of Jesus. Jesus was arrested, tried, and executed under Pontius Pilate's orders.

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Saul = Paul

Back 94

Paul was the apostle to the gentiles. He actively persecuted the early Christians, as he believed they were splitting the Jewish community. However, upon hearing the voice of God on the road to Damascus, he goes from actively persecuting Christians to proselytizing for them. Paul was the first to teach that one does not have to be a Jew in order to become a Christian.

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Nero

Back 95

the fifth and final Roman emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He was an early persecutor of the Christians in the Roman Empire.

Front 96

Constantine

Back 96

As the Emperor who empowered Christianity throughout the Roman Empire. He agreed upon the Edict of Milan which proclaimed tolerance towards all religions in the Empire.

Front 97

313 AD: Edict of Milan

Back 97

A letter agreed upon by Emperor Constantine and Emperor Licinius. It proclaimed religious tolerance in the Roman Empire. It was issued in 313 AD, concluding a period of persecution against the Christians.

Front 98

Copts = Monophysites

Back 98

A native Egyptian Christian who remained Christian while the majority of the region’s population converted to Islam./ the Christological position that Christ has only one nature (divine). This is opposed to the Chalcedonian position that says Christ has two natures (divine and human). This is the Coptic view.

Front 99

Matthew

Back 99

one of the apostles of Jesus who wrote the Gospel of Matthew. In it, he describes the genealogy, birth and youth, his life in Galilee, his trip to Jerusalem, and finally his crucifixion and resurrection.

Front 100

666

Back 100

the Number of the Beast as used in the Book of Revelation. It has been thought to refer to the Emperors Nero or Caligula.

Front 101

“East is East and West is West”

Back 101

The first line of a Rudyard Kipling poem (The Ballad of the East and West) that emphasizes the separation between the two worlds. Published in 1899.

Front 102

“White Man’s Burden”

Back 102

Another poem by Kipling, some Westerners used the phrase as a depiction imperialism that justified the acts as a noble enterprise. Represents Eurocentric racism.

Front 103

Mission Civilisatrice

Back 103

French for “civilizing mission.” French saw it as bringing propriety and culture to a “backwards” area. Ex. Algeria.

Front 104

“Egypt for Egyptians”

Back 104

A sense of state nationalism. Egyptians would rather be ruled by a terrible Egyptian leader than an outsider.

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Revolution of 1919

Back 105

Strikes and protests in Egypt against British presence. This event led to independence in 1922.

Front 106

King Farouq 1936

Back 106

Took power when he was 16, widely considered by Egyptians as a useless King. Lived a lavish lifestyle and was famous for it. Kicked out in the 1952 Revolution that led to Nasser coming to power.

Front 107

Rosetta Stone

Back 107

An ancient Egyptian artifact that has one passage written in three different languages—hieroglyphic, Demotic, and Greek. It was discovered by one of Napoleon’s soldiers and led to the modern day understanding of Egyptian hieroglyphs.

Front 108

1869: Suez Canal

Back 108

This canal opened up in 1869, creating a link between the Red Sea & Mediterranean Sea. The canal allowed for easier water transportation between Europe and Asia without people having to travel all the way around Africa.

Front 109

Ferdinand de Lesseps

Back 109

Lesseps was the French engineer who figured out the logistics for the Suez Canal. His engineering significantly reduced sailing distances and times between the West and the East.

Front 110

ruling race ~ subject race

Back 110

These terms were created as a result of colonialism which divided the world into the rule race and the subject race. The ruling race would be the colonizers, such as Britain, and the subject race would be the ones being colonized.

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1529: Siege of Vienna

Back 111

The first attempt of the Muslim Ottoman Empire, led by Sultan Suleiman I (the magnificent), to capture the city of Vienna, Austria. The siege signaled the Ottoman Empire's highwater mark and the end of Ottoman expansion in central Europe

Front 112

1683: Second Seige of Vienna

Back 112

The large-scale battle was won by Polish-Austrian-German forces led by King of Poland John III Sobieski against the Ottoman Empire. It ended the 300 years of struggle in power between the Ottoman and the European powers.

Front 113

"Sick man of Europe"

Back 113

A nickname associated with a European country experiencing a time of economic difficulty and/or poverty. Specifically the Ottoman Empire, when they started losing territories.

Front 114

"Eastern Question"

Back 114

The diplomatic and political problems posed by the decay of the Ottoman Empire. The expression does not apply to any one particular problem, but instead includes a variety of issues raised during the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, including instability in the European territories ruled by the Ottoman Empire.

Front 115

1798: Napolean invades Egypt

Back 115

Napolean decided to invade Egypt to protect the French trade interest. But they lost this expedition horribly. They were driven out by the local forces as well as the British.

Front 116

Description de l'Egypte

Back 116

 A series of publications, appearing first in 1809 and continuining until the final volumn appeared in 1826, which offered a comprehensive scientific description of ancient and modern Egypt as well as its natural history. It is the collaborative work of scholars and scientists who accompanied Napoleon's expedition to Egypt in 1798 to 1801

Front 117

Sharif Husayn of Mecca

Back 117

The Sharif of Mecca and Medina (and supposed descendent of Muhammed), Husayn allied with Britain and France in World War I when he saw that the Ottomans and Germans were losing. He led the "Arab Revolt" on June 5, 1916 against the Ottomans at the insistence of British High Commisioner Henry McMahon, who promised Husayn an Arab state from Persia to Egypt.

Front 118

Sir Henry McMahon

Back 118

The British High Commissioner for Egypt, Sir Henry McMahon is best known for his correspondance with Sharif Husayn of Mecca during World War I. He promised the Sharif an Arab state if he helped in the war against the Ottomans. The promise was never fulfilled however, and the MIddle East was divided into mandates of British and French control.

Front 119

High Commissioner for Egypt

Back 119

see above

Front 120

Husayn-McMahon correspondence

Back 120

An exchange of letters between Sharif Husayn and Sir Henry McMahon form 1915 to 1916 concerning the political future of the Arab lands under the soon-to-be-defeated Ottoman Empire. This correspondance encouraged the Arabs to fight the Ottomans

Front 121

1908-1918 Young Turks

Back 121

Group of Turks who wanted to revitalize the Ottoman Empire from the old ways that its leaders had kept for centuries with freedom and change. Many of the people lived in or around Ankara, where they created their capital changing it from Constantinople. They were led my Kemal Ataturk

Front 122

Kemal Ataturk

Back 122

The leader of the Young Turks and modern hero of Turkey (pictures of him all over) Did not like religion Realized Ottoman Empire had no future and Turks were better off just keeping Anatolia Military general who was a geniuses

Front 123

Arab nationalism

Back 123

Rose out of Pan Arabism, Idea that all Arabs go together, one Arab nation, Rose when Ottoman Empire started falling apart, Often described as rebirth, people reborn with since of history

Front 124

"One Arab Nation with an eternal mission"

Back 124

The Saying which united Arab people under Arab Nationalism, Describes Arab people wanting to make a land for themselves not foreign rulers

Front 125

"Arab Awakening"

Back 125

People see themselves under Arabs, No one knew who Arabs were just many kinds of Bedouins before this arose

Front 126

Baath

Back 126

The political party Saddam Hussein came to power under. Saddam turned it into a military party although it started out as not one

Front 127

mullah

Back 127

An educated Muslim trained in traditional religious law and doctrine and usually holding an official post. A group of mullahs seized power in Iran in 1979.

Front 128

mullahocracy

Back 128

Rulers that are mainly mullahs, creating a state that strictly follows traditional Islamic laws.

Front 129

Persia

Back 129

 The name in which Iran was known as before 1935.

Front 130

Teheran

Back 130

 The capital of Iran (should know where it’s located on the map)

Front 131

Isfahan

Back 131

 The capital of Isfahan province. (should know where it’s located on the map). It’s the 3rd largest cities in Iran.

Front 132

Persians

Back 132

 The official language of the country

Front 133

Kurds

Back 133

 Makes up about 7% of the population, lives generally on the North West of Iran.

Front 134

Azeris

Back 134

Turkic speaking group that lives near NW Iran. They are predominantly Muslims.

Front 135

Zoroastrians

Back 135

One of the minority religions in the Middle East, and is protected by the state. Prior to the Muslim Arab invasion, this was the main religion in Iran.

Front 136

shah

Back 136

The Persian term for monarch.

Front 137

Muhammad Reza Pahlavi Shah = "The Shah" (r.1941-1979)

Back 137

The last Shah of Iran until the revolution. He had a lot of reform. Also was responsible for oil natialization. Later he lived in exile.

Front 138

Mohammad Mossadegh

Back 138

Prime minister of Iran, who planned a coup against “The Shah”. He contributed a lot toward the nationalization of oil.

Front 139

SAVAK

Back 139

National Intelligence and security organization. It was like a secret police organization that most people hated. It was dismantled during the revolution.

Front 140

Ayatollah

Back 140

The high ranking title given to the Shia Clerics. Those people are expert at many areas of studies.

Front 141

Ayatolla Khomeni (d.1989)

Back 141

The leader of the Iranian revolution during 1979, who saw the overthrow of “The Shah”. Later he took a position created after the revolution, became a supreme leader of the country

Front 142

Bahais

Back 142

 A monotheistic faith that promotes the unity of the major world religion. Saying that each prophet taught the prophet proceeding him.

Front 143

Iran-Iraq War 1980-1988

Back 143

Referred to as the Gulf War/First Gulf War. Iraq invaded Iran because of the fear of Shia insurgency and many other reasons. Iran was able to quickly turn things around and take offensive for the next 6 years. There were about 1 million people who died.

Front 144

Ayatollah Khamenei (1989-)

Back 144

Very important leader in Iraq, he was responsible for the Iranian revolution. He was the president during 1981-1988. He is the most powerful person in Iran over the president, since he is the commander in chief over the army.

Front 145

Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (2005-)

Back 145

The current president of Iran, he is the first president who is not a religious cleric.

Front 146

hanif

Back 146

refers to the non-Jewish non-Christian Arabs during the (pre-Islamic) period known as the Jāhiliyya or "Ignorance," who had turned away from polytheism and toward monotheism (including Muhammad himself)

Front 147

Ka'ba

Back 147

cuboidal buliding (at the center of a mosque) in Mecca that is the most sacred site in Islam

Front 148

Quraysh

Back 148

dominant tribe of Mecca upon the appearance of the religion of Islam. It was the tribe to which the Islamic Prophet Muhammad belonged

Front 149

Khadija

Back 149

first wife of Muhammad and first Muslim ever

Front 150

sura

Back 150

"chapter" of Quran

Front 151

aya

Back 151

verses in Quran

Front 152

Hijra

Back 152

emigration of Muhammad and his followers to the city of Medina

Front 153

Pillars of Islam

Back 153

1. shahada (profession of faith) 2. prayer 3. charity 4. pilgrimage to Mecca 5. fasting (Ramadan)

Front 154

muezzin

Back 154

chosen person at the mosque who leads the call to Friday service and the five daily prayers from one of the mosque's minarets

Front 155

inimitability

Back 155

describes the Qu'ran as incapable of being imitated or copied

Front 156

"Seal of Prophets"

Back 156

a title given to Muhammad by a verse in the Qur'an. Muslims traditionally interpret this verse as meaning that Muhammad was the last prophet.

Front 157

"People of the Book"

Back 157

non-Muslim peoples who, according to the Qur'an, received scriptures which were revealed to them by God before the time of Muhammad (especially Christians and Jews).

Front 158

Ishmael

Back 158

Abraham's eldest son, born of his wife Sarah's hand maiden Hagar.

Front 159

umma

Back 159

Islamic community ruled by divine plan, also refers to whole Musilim world.

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Sunni

Back 160

followers of Ali and his descendents only

Front 161

Ali

Back 161

4th Caliph, Muhammad's son

Front 162

Fatima

Back 162

daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad from his first wife Khadija. Wife of Ali and mother of Husayn.

Front 163

Husayn

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Ali's son and Muhammad's grandson. Led revolt against Umayads, gave rise to Shii. Died in Karbala.

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Karbala (680 AD)

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Battle between the Umayyad caliph and Husayn (son of 'Ali). Husayn lost, and his martyrdom is ritually enacted annually in the Shi'i holiday of mourning, Ashura.

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imam

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In Shi'ism, imams are the divinely-inspired rightful rulers of the ummah, descended from 'Ali, the last of whom has gone into occultation and will reappear one day to initiate the final days.

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Twelvers

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Most widely-practiced type of Shi'ism, which counts twelve imams (as opposed to Seveners or Ismailis, who believe in a different genealogy).

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occultation 874 AD

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In Shi'ism, the event when the twelfth imam disappeared as a child. He is not dead, but rather taken into hiding (occultation) by God.

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mahdi

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"Divinely guided." In Shi'ism, the name under which the last imam will return to initiate the last days.

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ayatollah

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An office of spiritual leadership earned by Shi'i clerics. Made into a political office in the Islamic Republic of Iran after the 1979 Revolution. The first Grand Ayatollah was Khomeini. The current one is Khamenei.

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taqiya

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"Prudential dissimulation." Shi'i practice of outwardly following another religion (often Sunni Islam) to avoid persecution in times of strife. Druze and Sunnis (in Iraq, if threatened by Shi'ites) have both at times adopted the practice as well, but it is only an official doctrine of Shi'ism.

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Alawis

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Sect of Shi'i Islam distinguished by its esoteric reading of the Qur'an. Most dominant in the mountains of Syria. They are a minority, but Syrian ruler Hafez al-Assad and his son Bashar (current president) are Alawis, giving the group political power.

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Sufi

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Mystical Islam, with a focus on personal love for God. Mostly Sunni.

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dhikr

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Devotional repetition of God's name or part of the Qur'an. Group ceremony in Sufism.

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shari'a

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Islamic law, inferred from the Qur'an, hadith, and sunnah over centuries of interpretation by Muslim scholars.

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ulama'

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Muslim legal scholars who interpret shari'a, educated in the jurisprudence of the Qur'an. Al-Azhar, the university in Egypt, is a world center of training of the ulama.

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sunna

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"The trodden path;" the way Muhammad lived his life, to be emulated by all Muslims. Source of the word "Sunni." Known from reports from his companions, friends, and family which were orally transmitted and written down about a hundred years later.

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hadith

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The sayings of the prophet, also orally transmitted and only later verified and recorded by scholars. Relied on in shari'a and used by Muslims to interpret the Qur'an.

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Pharisees

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The Pharisees were a Jewish sect during the Roman occupation of Palestine. They wanted to maintain Jewish identity by keeping strictly to religious law. They emphasized the study of the Hebrew scriptures, which in itself was an act of piety. The Pharisees developed a large oral literature, which was rejected by the Sadducees, the priestly Jewish caste. Following the destruction of the Second Temple, Pharisaic Judaism developed into Rabbinic Judaism.

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Essenes

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The Essenes were a semi-monastic Jewish sect. They tended to withdraw from the larger Jewish community, forming their own separate communities, like the one at Qumran, which wrote what are known today as the Dead Sea Scrolls.

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Dead Sea Scrolls

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The Dead Sea Scrolls are writings found in the mid-1900's in caves along the Dead Sea. Believed to come from an Essene community based in Qumran. They contain various texts from the Hebrew scriptures, dating from 200 BCE - 200 AD.

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Qumran

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Qumran was the location of the Essene community which produced the Dead Sea Scrolls and placed them in caves along the Dead Sea.

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Zealots

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Radical nationalists who believed in fighting the Romans. They believed that only God or someone chosen by Him should rule Palestine. Zealots sometimes assassinated Roman soldiers and fellow Jews whom they felt were being too friendly towards the Romans.

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Messianism

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The belief that someone from the line of David will appear on Earth as a savior and deliver the Jews from all their troubles. There was a lot of Messianic fervor during the Roman occupation of Judea; many were expecting the arrival of the Messiah during this time.

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rabbinic Judaism

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Rabbinism is a form of Judaism that developed following the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans. It emerged as a way of practicing Judaism without the Temple sacrifice and other practices which were no longer possible following the destruction of the temple; also developed as a result of the diaspora, as many Jews were forced to leave Judea because of the Roman occupation. The basis for contemporary Judaism.

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shema

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The shema, meaning literally in Hebrew "Hear, oh Israel," are the first two words in a section of the Hebrew Scriptures. The shema is known as the most important prayer in Judaism.

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Harran

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Adam and Eve set foot here when expelled from the garden of Eden, also Abraham lived there.

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patriarch

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The name often given to Abraham because of his credit as the founder of the monotheistic religions. Jewish, Christian and Muslim believers regard him as the founding patriarch or forefather of the Israelites, Ishamelites and Edomite peoples. The Hebrew patriarchs are Abraham, Isaac and Jacob.

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Isaac

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The son of Abraham and Sarah, and the father of Jacob and Esau, ancestor to Jewish and Christian prophets, the second biblical patriarch

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Jacob = Israel

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the third Biblical patriarch. His father is Isaac, and his grandfather is Abraham. After a struggle with a figure that may have been god, he became Israel

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Israelites

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the dominant cultural and ethnic group living in Canaan in Biblical times, composing the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Modern Jewish people claim to be descended from the Tribes of Israel

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Canaan, Canaanites

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The region approximating to present-day Israel, the West Bank, and the Gaza Strip, plus adjoining coastal lands and parts of Lebanon and Syria. One of seven regional ethnic divisions or "nations" driven out before the Israelites following the Exodus. The land is called Canaan, the people are Canaanites.

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Promised Land

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Another name for the Land of Israel. According to the Bible, the land was promised by God as an everlasting possession to the descendants of the Hebrew patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob

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Joshua

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Israelite leader who succeeded Moses. One of the twelve spies sent on by Moses to explore the land of Canaan who would later lead the conquest of that land. Joshua shared in all the events of the Exodus. He was Moses' apprentice, and accompanied him part of the way when he ascended Mount Sinai to receive the Ten Commandments

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Philistines

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People who inhabited the southern coast of Canaan before the time of the arrival of the Israelites, their territory being named Philistia in later contexts. The term was used at a time as an insult.

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Kingdom of Israel

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Existed from roughly 930s BCE until about 720s BCE. The United Monarchy was formed out of the territories of the twelve Hebrew tribes living in the area in and around modern Israel and Palestine

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Saul

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The first king of the ancient Kingdom of Israel. When his reign succumbed to a Philistine onslaught, a part of his kingdom fell to the Philistines, while the remainder was contested by his surviving son Ish-bosheth and rival David.

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David

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The second king of the united Kingdom of Israel. He is depicted as a righteous king. David's reign represents the formation of a coherent Jewish kingdom centered in Jerusalem and the institution of an eternal royal dynasty; when this "eternal" Davidic dynasty failed after some four centuries, it formed the basis for the Jewish belief in the Messiah - at first the human occupant of the throne of David, later the quasi-supernatural figure who would usher in the end of time

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Soloman (r. 972-932 BCE)

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Son of David. Third king of the Kingdom of Israel. As the constructor of the first temple in Jerusalem and last ruler of the united Jewish Kingdom of Israel from ancient times, until it was re-established in the modern State of Israel, Solomon is associated with the peak "golden age" of the independent Kingdom of Israel as well as a source of judicial and religious wisdom.

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Israel (falls 721 BCE)

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The United Monarchy was formed out of the territories of the twelve Hebrew tribes living in the area in and around modern Israel and Palestine.

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Judah (falls 586 BCE)

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Was one of the successor states to the Kingdom of Israel. Kingdom of Judah first emerged after the death of Saul the King, when the tribe of Judah elevated King David to rule over them.

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canon

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A list of Biblical books which establishes the set of books which are considered to be authoritative as scripture by a particular Jewish or Christian community.

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Pompey (63 BCE)

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The political leader of the late Roman Republic, Roman emperor Pompey incorporates Israel into the Roman Empire.

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Sadducees

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Upper priestly caste, associated with the leadership of the Temple in Jerusalem. Possibly, Sadducees represent the aristocratic clan of the Hasmonean high priests, Sadducees were viewed as hypocrites since they appeased the Romans while performing their priestly duties.

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Abbasids (750-1258)

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Took over the rule of much of the Middle East after they killed the remnants of the Umayyad Dynasty. The capital was moved from Damascus to Baghdad and this sparked the Golden Age of the Islamic world. Many classical texts in were translated into a number of languages, including Turkish, Persian, Arabic, and they survive only in this form today. Great innovations in science, medicine, math, and astronomy took place.

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Baghdad

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The Abbasids moved the capital of the empire from Damascus to Baghdad in 762. It is the current capital of Iraq. A strategic central position in the Middle East.

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Harun al-Rashid

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fifth caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, born in Reyy near Tehran. He was a scholar and poet, and he commissioned a great library, Bayt al-Hikma, the House of Knowledge. He had a friendship with Charlemagne and sent him and elephant and a waterclock.

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Thousand and One Nights = Arabian Nights

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Created mostly during the reign of Harun al-Rashid, they detail the stories told to King Shahryar by his wife Scheherazade. Most of them come from Arab folk tales, although elements from Persia and Turkey also fit into the stories.

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Ibn Sina = Avicenna

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Avicenna-The greatest doctor who lived during the Medieval Islamic period. His Canon of Medicine was used in Europe up until the 1600’s. He is first credited with the concept of the dose and made many observations and hygiene and sickness. He also excelled at math, astronomy, physics, chemistry, and a bunch of other stuff.

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Mamluks

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slave soldiers. They were used by the Arab as palace guards to protect the caliph, and they also fought off Christians in the Crusades. They grew into a powerful caste and even seized control of Egypt from 1250-1517.

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Crusades 1095

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The Catholic church claimed that Muslims were preventing Christians from going on pilgrimages to the Holy Lands. The conflict created an exchange of ideas and many trade routes were established between Europe and the Middle East.

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al-Andalus

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the name given to the Iberian lands controlled by the Moors from 711-1492. First ruled by the last Umayyad caliph, the Berbers eventually took over.

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Omar Khayyam

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1048-1122. He was a great poet, mathematician, astronomer, and scholar. He reformed the calendar and solved many algebraic problems. He is an exemplar of the scholar living during the Arab Golden Age.

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Righlty Guided caliphs (632-661)

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a term used in Sunni Islam to refer to the first four Caliphs who established the Rashidun Caliphate. They were all close companions of Muhammad, and his relatives. They are particularly significant to modern intra-Islamic debates: for Sunni Muslims, they are models of righteous rule; for Shia Muslims, the first three of the four were usurpers. Under this time, people could identify themselves with their leaders.

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Umayyads (661-750)

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Began with the second of the four Arab caliphates established after the death of Muhammad, the first is the Rashidun. It was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty, whose name derives from Umayya ibn Abd Shams, the great-grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph. Damascus was the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate.

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Damascus

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The capital of today's Syria, and is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Its prestige reached its peak when it became the capital of the Umayyad Empire.

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Armenian (IE)

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Armenian is an Indo-European language.

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Yerevan

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the capital and biggest city of Armenia. Many survivors of the genocide settled in this town and over fifty years transformed it into the political, economic, and social center of the country.

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Armenian Genocide

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Killings of 500,000-1.5 million Armenians by the Turkish government. On May 27th 1915 The Temporary Law of Deportation was enacted, which forced the Armenians into the Syrian dessert. It was during this time that the killing took place. Turkey saw the conflict as a fight among equals.

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CUP

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Committee on Union and Progress. The organization of the Young Turks. They wanted revolution and reorganization of the Ottoman government. Most of its members were killed or court marshaled following WWII.

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Talaat

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A Young Turk, many consider him the architect of the genocide. The decrees calling for the exile of the Armenians carry his name. He fled to Germany after the war but was tried in absentia of war crimes and found guilty. He was assassinated in Berlin by an Armenian who had lost his family in the genocide.

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Armenia

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is a landlocked mountainous country in between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. It borders Turkey to the west, and Iran to the south. Armenia has good relations with most countries except Turkey over its refusal to acknowledge the Armenian Genocide of 1915 during WWI when a large proportion of Armenians living in Anatolia were killed.

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Alexander the Great (d. 323 BCE)

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The Greek king of Macedonia. During his campaigns, he created Alexandria in Egypt.

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Constantine

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As the Emperor who empowered Christianity throughout the Roman Empire. He agreed upon the Edict of Milan which proclaimed tolerance towards all religions in the Empire.

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Byzantium = Constantinople = Istanbul

Back 224

The ancient Greek city which under the Byzantine Empire was named Constantinople. Constantinople then fell to the Turkish Ottoman Empire in 1453. The name was changed to Istanbul following the establishment of the Turkish state.

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Byzantine Empire

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describes the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages when capital was Constantinople

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Sassanids

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the second Persian empire, traditional territory encompassed all of today's Iran, Iraq, Armenia, western Afghanistan, eastern parts of Turkey, and parts of India, Syria, Pakistan, Caucasia, Central Asia and Arabia.

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Ctesiphon

Back 227

imperial capital for the Sassanid Empire

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Zoroastrianism

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the religion based on the teachings of the prophet Zoroaster, with the worship of Ahura Mazda as the supreme divine. It was once the dominant religion in Iran, but was marginalized by the Islamic Conquests.

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Mecca

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Islam's holiest city and home to the Kaaba shrine and the Grand Mosque. The city is known for the annual Hajj pilgrimage. Located in Saudi Arabia.

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Ka'ba

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cuboidal building in Mecca towards which all Muslims pray, holiest spot in Islam

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Yathrib

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later called Medina, the burial place of Muhammad

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Medina

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It is the second holiest city in Islam, and the burial place of Muhammad. Located in Saudi Arabia.

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Khansa

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Arabic poet, she was a contemporary of Muhammad and converted to Islam

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Mongols

Back 234

They attacked and destroyed much of the Middle East, forcing the fall of the Abbasid Empire. The Mongols destroyed much of the infrastructure of the empire. Hulagu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, was one of the scariest and Arab mothers would warn bad children that Hulagu was coming to take them away.

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1258: Hulagu sacks Baghdad

Back 235

This brought an and to the Abbasid Empire.

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Ottoman Turks

Back 236

Took over as the ruling people in the Middle East. They created the Ottoman Empire which would last until the 20th century.

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Osman (r.1280-1326)

Back 237

1280-1326 He was a Turkish tribal leader that founded the Ottoman Empire. The Mongol invasions forced many Muslims west, and they settled in Turkey and Asia Minor and Osman quickly incorporated them into his newly found state.

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sultan

Back 238

the name for the king of the Ottoman Empire. Suleyman the Magnificent is the favorite of Professor Hayes.

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1529: First Siege of Vienna

Back 239

led by Suleyman the Magnificent, it marked the high-water of Ottoman expansion. The Turks were defeated and many died in the attack.

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1683: Second Seige of Vienna

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This second attempt also failed and the empire lost Hungary to the Hapsburgs. From this point on the empire slowly started to crumble and by the 19th century was labeled the Sick Man of Europe.

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Dracula AKA Vlad Dracul AKA Vlad III the Impaler

Back 241

Best known for his cruel punishment of impaling people on spikes. For some reason another favorite of Professor Hayes.

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Mandates

Back 242

A League of Nations mandate refers to a legal status for certain territories transferred from the control of one country to another following World War I.

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Deir Yassin

Back 243

Village near Jerusalem that declared neutrality in 1948 Arab-Israeli War (War of Independence) but residents massacred by militant Zionists.

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War of Independence

Back 244

a.k.a. 1948 Arab-Israeli War. first in a series of wars fought between the newly declared State of Israel and its Arab neighbors.

Front 245

Nakba

Back 245

a.k.a. Palestinian exodus, refers to the creation of the Palestinian refugee problem during and after the 1948 Palestine war

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Occupied Territories

Back 246

Refers to West Bank (taken from Jordan), East Jerusalem (taken from Syria), and Golan Heights (Syria), captured by Israel during Six-Day War. Also once included Sinai Peninsula, which was returned to Egypt. Also includes Gaza, which is still controlled by Israel.

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Practical Zionism

Back 247

Practical Zionism is a call for a return of the Jews out of diaspora and back to Zion. It developed in the 1800s as a response to the anti-Semitism that was running through Europe and Russia at the time.

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Political Zionism

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Political Zionism called for the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine. The concept was advanced by Theodor Herzl, who proposed the idea in his book Der Judenstaat. Political Zionism ignored the hundreds of thousands of Arabs already living in Palestine.

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pogrom

Back 249

A pogrom is an organized massacre of a particular ethnic group; it is generally used in reference to Jews in Russia or eastern Europe.

Front 250

Theodor Hertzl

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Theodor Herzl was the founder of Political Zionism. After witnessing the anti-Semitism which characterized much of Europe, Herzl believed it was necessary for Jews to establish a country of their own, and promoted the establishment of this home in Palestine.

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Alfred Dreyfus

Back 251

Alfred Dreyfus was a Jewish captain in the French military who was accused of being a spy for the Germans. Though he was innocent, many in France believed he was guilty because of his Jewish ethnicity. Many people questioned the idea of whether Dreyfus could be both French and Jewish at the same time.

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1894 Dreyfus Affair

Back 252

The Dreyfus Affair (1894) is an example of the anti-Semitism running through Europe, and was key in the development of Political Zionism. The trial of Dreyfus, a Jewish captain accused of being a spy for the Germans, led to anti-Dreyfus riots in Paris. Herzl witnessed the anti-Semitism characterizing the trial, and this helped to convince him of the need for a separate Jewish state.

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Yasir Arafat

Back 253

President of the Palestinian National Authority, the PLO chairman and leader of the secular Fatah party which he founded in 1959. Arafat spent much of his life fighting against Israel in the name of Palestinian self-determination. Originally opposed to Israel's existence, he modified his position in 1988 to try and create a Palistinian state.

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Jericho

Back 254

Jericho is a city located near the Jordan River, north of the Dead Sea in the West Bank of the Palestinian territories. It is believed to be the oldest continuously-inhabited city of the world, many settlements of many different gorups lived in Jericho for thousands of years.

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Intifada

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An Arabic word that means shaking off, but generally translated as rebellion. It's referred to the Palestinian uprising, that is famous for stone-throwing by youths against the heavily-armed Israeli Defense Forces. Also referred to the first Intifadah in 1988.

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Second Intifada

Back 256

The second Palestinian uprising, a period of intensified Palestinian-Israeli violence, which began in late September 2000. Some Israelis believe that when Yassir Arafat walked out on negotiations at the Camp David Summit as the agreements didn't sit well for the Paistinians, it triggered the second intifada.

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Hamas

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Is a Palestinian Sunni paramilitary organization and political party which currently holds a majority of seats in the elected legislative council of the Palestinian National Authority. Hamas was created in 1987 as an ofshoot of the Muslim Brotherhood, it also runs extensive social programs and has gained popularity in Palestinian society by establishing hospitals, education systems, libraries and other services.

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Soloman (r. 972-932 BCE)

Back 258

Son of David. Third king of the Kingdom of Israel. As the constructor of the first temple in Jerusalem and last ruler of the united Jewish Kingdom of Israel from ancient times, until it was re-established in the modern State of Israel, Solomon is associated with the peak "golden age" of the independent Kingdom of Israel as well as a source of judicial and religious wisdom.

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Romans

Back 259

Destroyed much of Jeruselum

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Pompey 63 BCE

Back 260

Roman emporor, incorporates Israel into the roman empire.

Front 261

Diaspora

Back 261

The Jewish presence outside of the Land of Israel is a result of the expulsion of the Jewish people out of their land, during the destruction of the First Temple, Second Temple and after the Bar Kokhba revolt. They later spread throughout the world by either migration or conversion. The diaspora is commonly accepted to have begun with the 8th-6th century BCE conquests of the ancient Jewish kingdoms and expulsions of enslaved Jewish population.

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Zion

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Term used to refer to the land of Israel and its capitol Jeruselum. Word occurs in hebrew bible as a poetic name for Jeruselum, term was later expanded to include the entirety of Palestine. In reference Mt. Zion near Jeruselum.

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Zionism

Back 263

Return from the diaspora to Zion. Political Zionism: creation of a jewish state in palestine, Theodor Herzl founded the idea and is the father of modern zionism, Pratical Zionism: in 1860s-70s practical zionism emerges due to anti-semitism in Europe, 1882 Jews began moving to Palestine

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West Bank

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A contested territory west of the Jordan River, mostly occupied by Palestinians but settled by Israeli Jews. Its official Israeli name is "Judea and Samaria" since its capture in the Six-Day War of 1967.

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Gaza

Back 265

A city in the Gaza Strip, an area of coastline bordering Egypt, currently ruled by the Palestinian Authority. Currently occupied by the descendants of Palestinian refugees. Hamas has used it as a base from which to rocket Israel.

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Sinai

Back 266

A peninsula in Egypt dividing the Mediterannean Sea from the Red Sea, between Egypt and Israel, once controlled and settled by Israel, now turned over to Egyptian government.

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Golan Heights

Back 267

Borders Syria, Israel, Lebanon, and Jordan. Once Syrian territory, they were captured by Israel in the 1967 War. Syria still lays claim to the territory.

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Oslo Accords

Back 268

1993 diplomatic relations between Israel and the PLO (represented by Yasir Arafat). Intended to be a framework for peace and Palestinian self-government, the vague terms have led to little real change.

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Palestinian Authority

Back 269

Intended in the Oslo Accords to be a temporary governing body for Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza, it has lasted longer. The two main parties are Fatah and Hamas.

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Canaan

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The land promised to Abraham by God in the Hebrew Torah. This is an ancient term for the region of modern day Israel, Palestine, Lebanon and areas of Jordan and Syria and Egypt. Also known as the "Holy Land", "Zion", or simply "Israel".

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Canaanites

Back 271

The people who lived in Canaan in ancient times.

Front 272

Conquest

Back 272

Israel conquered the Gaza Strip, Sinai Peninsula, Golan Heights, and West Bank in 1967, but returned the Heights to Syria and the Sinia to Egypt. Then they recaptured these territories in the 1973 war.

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Philistines

Back 273

I have no clue how this is relevant, but… people who inhabited the southern coast of Canaan, fought with Hebrews. Hebrew King David, defeated them.

Front 274

Palestine

Back 274

Used to refer to the area that is between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. includes contemporary Israel and the Palestinian territories, parts of Jordan, and parts of Lebanon and Syria. In its narrow meaning, it refers to the area within the boundaries of the former British Mandate of Palestine (1920-1948) west of the Jordan River. Remember-Palestinian Diaspora because of the formation of Israel.

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United Monarchy = Israel

Back 275

1050 BCE – 930 BCE. Before United Monarchy, jews lived as a theocracy. Eventually this country split into two kingdoms, Israel and Judah

Front 276

Saul

Back 276

The first king of the United Monarchy and of Judah. Killed by Philistines.

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David

Back 277

Second king of the United Kingdom of Israel.

Front 278

1896 Der Judenstaat

Back 278

written in 1896 by Theodor Herzl. It argued that the best way to avoid discrimination in Europe was to create a Jewish state. It popularized the Zionist idea.

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1897 World Zionist Congress

Back 279

this congress was led by Theodor Herzl and was later instrumental in the founding of the modern state of Israel.

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Basle, Switzerland

Back 280

Where the first World Zionist Congress was held on September 3rd 1897. It was led by Theodor Herzl.

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Lord Rothschild

Back 281

He was seen as a representative of the Jewish community. An influential Zionist.

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1917 Balfour Declaration

Back 282

An official letter from the British Foreign Office headed by Arthur Balfour, the UK's Foreign Secretary to Lord Rothschild, seen as a representative of the Jewish people. The letter stated that the British government favored the establishment of a national home for the Jewish people

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Abraham (2000-1600 BCE?)

Back 283

Abraham is featured in Genesis in the Old Testament. He was the first patriarch and he brings his family to canaan which is the land promised to him by god in the covenant. Islam, Christianity, Judaism are the 3 Abrahamic religions. God promised abraham that through his offspring all the nations of the world would come to exist.

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Israelites

Back 284

The descendants of Abraham that settle in canaan among the canaanites. They lived in the promised land tunil 587 BCE when the babyonians took them over and sent them into exile. They were divided in 12 tribes. "Israel" was the name given to the patriarch Jacob.

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Moses

Back 285

He is Hebrew religious leader, prophet to whom authorship of the Torah is ascribed. He leads israelites out of bondage in egypt to the promised land in canaan.He leads them through the red sea, the desert for 40 years, and receives the 10 commandments from god. He dies along the way and never actually makes it to canaan.

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Exodus (1200 BCE?)

Back 286

It is the second book of the jewish torah and means "departure". It detals the flight of the israelites from egypt to the promised land lead by moses.

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Promised Land

Back 287

It is the land promised by God to the Israelites through the covenant with Abraham.Canaan. It is the site of Israel and the reason for the Israel/Palestine conflict.

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Joshua

Back 288

He leads the israelites in battle against the canaanites.

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Asia Minor

Back 289

Same as Anatolia; it’s a region of Western Asia, comprising most of modern day Turkey.

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Anatolia

Back 290

Same as Asia Minor; it’s a region of Western Asia, comprising most of modern day Turkey.

Front 291

Taurus Mts.

Back 291

A mountain range in southern Turkey. During WWI, it was a major strategic objective of the Allies.

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Bosporus

Back 292

Also known as the Istanbul Strait, this strait forms the boundary between the European and Asian parts of Turkey.

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Ankara

Back 293

The capital of Turkey which is centrally located.

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Istanbul

Back 294

The largest city in Turkey which is located on the Bosporus Strait.

Front 295

Constantinople

Back 295

A very strategically located capital of the Ottoman Empire; after Turkey became an independent country, the capital was moved from Constantinople to Ankara.

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Turkish

Back 296

The official language of Turkey.

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Kemal Ataturk (r.1923-1938)

Back 297

A general during WWI who put an end to the Ottoman Empire and led Turkey towards its independence. The country is named after him and he sought to create a modern, democratic state.

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Young Turks

Back 298

They were a young group of military guys who were “go-getters” and were unhappy with the Ottoman Empire so they wanted a secular state. They were led by Kemal Ataturk. This group helped Turkey reach its independence.

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Kemalism

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A reform idea of Ataturk which was meant to somehow westernize Turkey and secularize the state. Under Kemalism, religion is meant to be a private part of one’s life. This ideology has made Turkey what it is today.

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Ottoman Empire

Back 300

The area the modern state of Turkey used to be. The empire lasted from 1299 to 1923 and mainly focused on Islam.

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Kurds

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The Turkish government worries about Kurdish separatism because there is such a large population of Kurds in Turkey.

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Mountain Turks

Back 302

A euphemistic name given to the population of Kurds living in the mountains. They were given different names in order to deny and downplay their existence.

Front 303

Orhan Pamuk

Back 303

A famous author who was arrested because he mentioned the injustice with Kurds and the Armenian Genocide during an interview.

Front 304

Recep Erdogan (2003-)

Back 304

The current Prime Minister of Turkey who is slightly more Islamic. Even though he is more religious, overall he has been a more moderate ruler.

Front 305

Avestan

Back 305

An East Iranian language used to compose the hymns and body of the Zoroastrian Avesta (their primary compilation of texts for religion)

Front 306

Indo-European

Back 306

European-2nd millennium, bce, migrated across Iran, as far south as India. Conquered Mesopotamia, sacked Babylon, allied with Egypt. From indo-europea cultue, vedic, mittani, Hittite, and ZOROASTRIAN religion originated.

Front 307

Indo-Iranian

Back 307

back beyond 1500 bce, speakers filtered through the Caucasus mountains to the Iranian plateau, this is when religion began

Front 308

Gathas

Back 308

the only direct source of Zoroaster’s message, suggests magi and men of the old religion forced Zoroaster to flee to western Afghanistan. Here when King Vishtapa became his patron, his message began to take affect.

Front 309

Ahura Mazda = Ohrmazd

Back 309

The supreme God, the Wise Lord. Who has thought all things into existence by his Holy Spirit, made up of 3 entities (holy spirit, good mind, truth. PG 326

Front 310

Bounteous Immortals

Back 310

Ahura Mazda manifests in creation through seven divine Attributes. In the Gathas these Attributes are sometimes abstractions and sometimes personifications. In later Zoroastrian traditions, these Attributes are fully personified as a group of entities named the "Amesha Spentas", the "Bounteous Immortals."

Front 311

monotheism

Back 311

devotion to the one divine spirit that exists.

Front 312

henotheism

Back 312

devotion to a single god while accepting the existence or possible existence of other deities, “inclusive monotheism”

Front 313

dualism

Back 313

Two entities good and evil, Ahura Mazda of good and Angra Mainyu (destructive spirit) of evil.

Front 314

goof thoughts, good words, good deeds

Back 314

human beings are free, those that choose to do good win eternal reward of possessing wholeness and immortality.

Front 315

Ahriman

Back 315

The evil one, Same as angra mainyu (the destructive spirit)

Front 316

Achaemenids (539-330 BCE)

Back 316

The great leaders of the Achaemenid Empire who followed Zoroaster were the Perisans Cyrus II, Cambyses II, Darius I. They conquered eastern Iran, the prophet’s initial sphere of influence, and left some form of Zoroastrianism as the religious rationale for a new empire.

Front 317

Parsees

Back 317

Indian Zoroastrians

Front 318

Magi

Back 318

Responsible for the religious and funerary practices of the ancient Iranian people. In conflict with Zoroastrianism until they later accepted it

Front 319

Tower of Silence

Back 319

where the dead are put to expose the corpses to birds of prey

Front 320

haoma

Back 320

The sacred liquor used in the old Aryan cult, until recently used as sort of sacrament for the dying.

Front 321

Nawruz

Back 321

marks the first day of the Iranian new year.

Front 322

Zoroaster = Zarathusthra = Zartusht

Back 322

Ancient Iranian prophet and religious poet. The Gathas are attributed to him (hymns that are the liturgical core of zoroastrianism). was born into warrior caste family. He has an encounter with angel when 30.

Front 323

Avesta

Back 323

The writing of Zoroaster and his followers are collected into this.

Front 324

Bidonville

Back 324

French for irregular housing

Front 325

Gastarbeiter

Back 325

German for "guest worker"

Front 326

Proto-language

Back 326

Common ancestor of related families that form a language family

Front 327

Indo-European family

Back 327

Persian, Pashto,Kurdish, Armenian

Front 328

Altaic family

Back 328

Turkish

Front 329

Semitic family

Back 329

Arabic, Hebrew, Aramaic,

Front 330

Sects of Islam

Back 330

Sunni, Shii, Druze,Alawi

Front 331

Jews

Back 331

Speak Hebrew, Yiddish; Judaism

Front 332

Persians

Back 332

Speak Perisan (=Farsi); Muslim (Shii)

Front 333

Pashtos

Back 333

Speak Pashto; Muslim (Sunni)

Front 334

Kurds

Back 334

Speak Kurdish; Muslim (Sunni)

Front 335

Assyrians

Back 335

Speak Aramaic; Christian

Front 336

Turks

Back 336

Speak Turkish; Muslim (Sunni)

Front 337

Berbers

Back 337

Speak Berber; Muslim (Sunni)

Front 338

Armenians

Back 338

Speak Armenian; Christians

Front 339

Egypt

Back 339

Capital: Cairo

Back 340

"Mother of the World" "Gift of Nile"

Back 341

Most of population became Muslim/Arab

Front 342

Naguib Mahfouz (d. 2006)

Back 342

Egyptian novelist explores existentialism, Nobel prize for literature

Front 343

Herodotus

Back 343

Greek historian, regarded as Father of History in Western culture.

Front 344

Aswan Dam (= High Dam)

Back 344

Nasser

Front 345

Lake Nasser

Back 345

Resulted from construction of Aswn Dam

Front 346

Suez Canal

Back 346

allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without circumnavigation of Africa

Front 347

Alexandria

Back 347

2nd largest city in Egypt

Front 348

Al-Azhar University

Back 348

In Cairo, chief centre of Arabic and Islamic learning in the world

Front 349

British 1882

Back 349

British invades Egypt to establish puppet gov, retreated

Front 350

King Faroul (r. 1936-1952)

Back 350

Lavish king, deposed by Nasser and Free Officers

Front 351

Gamal Abd al-Nasser (r. 1954-1970)

Back 351

1st politician to articulate Pan-Arabis

Front 352

Free Officers

Back 352

Committed to unseating the Egyptian monarchy and British advisors, founded by Nasser

Front 353

Pan-Arabism

Back 353

unification among the peoples and countries of the Arab World

Front 354

United Arab Republic (1958-1961)

Back 354

A brief union between Egypt and Syria during Nasser’s term as first step toward pan-Arabism.

Front 355

Arab socialism

Back 355

Nasser redistributed land from wealthy to poor. Subsidized food, fixed price of basic commodities. Nationalized industries. Many Egyptians still depend on subsdies.

Front 356

Non-Aligned Movement

Back 356

Countries who chose to not join any Cold War blocs

Front 357

Anwar Sadat (r. 1970-1981)

Back 357

Succeeded Nasser, signed Camp David Accord and Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty--pissed off many Arabs. Pursued Open Door Policy. Assasinated. Street in Iran named after assasinator.

Front 358

Open-door policy

Back 358

Allowed for foreign aid and investment.

Front 359

Husni Mubarak (r. 1981- )

Back 359

Current president of Egypt

Front 360

Muslim Brotherhood

Back 360

opposes current Egyptian regime. Provides civil services gov. cannot provide and has support of many Egyptians.

Front 361

Copts

Back 361

Ethnoreligious term referring to Arabic-speaking Christians

Front 362

Fellah, fellahin

Back 362

peasant/farmer in M.E.

Front 363

Gamal Mubarak

Back 363

Son of current president, believed to be eventual successor.

Front 364

Kefaya

Back 364

grassroots coalition that opposes Mubarak

Front 365

Israel capital

Back 365

Capital: Jerusalem

Front 366

Jerusalem

Back 366

many countries keep embassies in Tel Aviv to avoid sensitivity

Front 367

Occupied Territories

Back 367

West Bank, East Jerusalem, Golan Heights, Gaza Strip

Front 368

West Bank

Back 368

Obtained from Jordan in Six-Day War. Under Israeli military occupation, but not annexed by Israel.

Front 369

Judaea/Samaria

Back 369

Biblical name for West Bank region.

Front 370

Golan Heights

Back 370

Captured from Syria by Israel during Six-Day War

Front 371

Negev

Back 371

desert region of southern Israel

Front 372

Ashkenzazi

Back 372

Jews descended from the medieval Jewish communities of the Rhineland in the west of Germany.

Front 373

Sephardi

Back 373

Jews of Spanish and Portugese origin.

Front 374

Mizrahi

Back 374

Jews descended from the Jewish communities of the Middle East, North Africa, Central Asia and the Caucasus

Front 375

Orthodox jews

Back 375

strict interpretation of Jewish texts

Front 376

Reform jews

Back 376

more progressive

Front 377

1967 Six-Day War

Back 377

Aka Arab-Israeli War. Fought between Israel and Arab neighbors Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. The nations of Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria also contributed troops and arms to the Arab forces. Conclusion: Israel had seized the Gaza Strip, the Sinai Peninsula, the West Bank of the Jordan River (including East Jerusalem), and the Golan Heights.

Front 378

1979 Camp David Accrds

Back 378

Signed by Egypt and Israel, witnessed by Carter, led directly to Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty.

Front 379

1993 Oslo Accords

Back 379

First direct, face-to-face agreement between Israel (Rabin) and Palestinians (PLO, represented by Yasser Arafat). It was the first time that some Palestinian factions publicly acknowledged Israel's right to exist, presided by Clinton. Called for Israel to withdraw forces from parts of Gaza Strip and West Bank; other issues left to be decided.

Front 380

Two-state solution

Back 380

envisions two separate states in the Western portion of the historic region of Palestine, one Jewish and another Arab

Front 381

Land for Peace

Back 381

general principle proposed for resolving the Arab-Israeli conflict by which the Israel would relinquish control of all or part of the territories it conquered in 1967 in return for peace with and recognition by the Arab world

Front 382

Ariel Sharon

Back 382

former Israeli Prime Minister and military leader.

Front 383

Ehud Olmert

Back 383

current Prime Minister of Israel

Front 384

Separation Fence/Apartheid Wall

Back 384

located mainly in West Bank

Front 385

Palestinian Authority

Back 385

administrative organization established to govern parts of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. President is Mahmoud Abbas.

Front 386

Yassir Arafat (d. 2004)

Back 386

Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization, President of the Palestinian National Authority. fighting against Israel in the name of Palestinian self-determination. Originally opposed to existence of Israel; later modified position.

Front 387

Palestine Liberation organization

Back 387

More recently, the PLO unofficially adopted a two-state solution.

Front 388

Jericho

Back 388

Town in the West Bank. Oldest continuously-inhabited city of the world.

Front 389

Mahmoud Abbas = Abu mazin

Back 389

President of the Palestinian National Authority; portrayed as face of Palestinian moderation.

Front 390

Hamas

Back 390

Militant organization calls for destruction of Israel. holds majority of elected legislative council of Palestinian National Authority. Election victories came as a surprise, seen as reaction against Arafat’s corruption. Runs extensive social programs and gaine d popularity. Leader of Hamas lives in Syria.

Front 391

Syria

Back 391

Capital: Damascus. Foe of Israel, want Golan heights back. Support insurgents against US in Iraq. “Rogue state”. Many Alawis.

Front 392

Aleppo

Back 392

ancient city in northern Syria, center of trade.

Front 393

Hamah

Back 393

City in Syria. Site of uprising by Muslim Brotherhood, shelled by Syrian army under Hafez al-Asad.

Front 394

Euphrates

Back 394

Potential for war over water use disputes between Turkey and Iraq.

Front 395

Hafez al-Asad (r. 1971-2000)

Back 395

Was president of Syria, longest-serving elected leader of any Arab state. Determined to avoid conflict with Israel, kept tight rein on Syrian-based PLO.

Front 396

Muslim Brotherhood

Back 396

Opposed Hafez al-Asad because he advanced Alawi interests over Sunni majority. Crushed brutally in Hama uprising.

Front 397

Bashar al-Asad (r. 2000- )

Back 397

Assad’s son. Syria amended constitution to bring down minimum age for presidency so Bashar can take over.

Front 398

Alawis

Back 398

Sect of Muslim prominent in Syria.

Front 399

Lebanon

Back 399

Capital: Beirut. Prime Minister Fuad Siniora. Large number of Maronites

Front 400

Levant

Back 400

geographic region covering Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Iraq

Front 401

Litani River

Back 401

River in Lebanon

Front 402

Baalbek

Back 402

Geography: in Lebanon, next to Litani river

Front 403

Confessionalism

Back 403

National Pact: oral agreement by various local leaders on 6 Christian: 5 Muslim ratio for all public offices. President must be Maronite.

Front 404

Maronites

Back 404

Christians in Lebanon

Front 405

Hizbollah

Back 405

Shiite movement, “Party of God.” Took root through opposition against Israeli occupation of southern Lebanon. 2006 Israel invades Lebanon in response to Hizbolla capturing Israeli soldiers.

Front 406

Hassan Nasrallah

Back 406

leader of Hizbollah, credited for ending Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon (only Arab force ever made Israel retreat) and playing major roles in prisoner exchange with Israel.

Front 407

Prime Minister Fuad Siniora

Back 407

Prime minister of Lebanon

Front 408

Rafiq Hariri

Back 408

Billionaire and ex-prime minister of Lebanon. Syria (had come in to help end Civil War) blamed for assassinating him, many protests, Syria leaves Lebanon.

Front 409

Iraq

Back 409

Capital: Baghdad. Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki.

Front 410

Mosul

Back 410

City, old admin district of Ottoman

Front 411

Basra

Back 411

City, old admin district of Ottoman

Front 412

Marsh Arabs

Back 412

inhabitants of the Tigris-Euphrates marshlands in the south and east of Iraq and along the Iranian border. Saddam destroyed them.

Front 413

Kurds

Back 413

Non-Arab minority in Iraq. Have their own regional gov. in iraq. Saddam used mustard gas against them in brutal anti-Kurdish campaign, saw as threat to territorial integrity.

Front 414

Assyrians

Back 414

Non-Arab minority in Iraq. many fled Iraq due to current war

Front 415

Turkomen

Back 415

non-Arab minority of Iraq, language and traditions oppressed by Saddam.

Front 416

Saddam Hussein (r. 1970-2003)

Back 416

a Sunni, oppressed the Shii (majority of Iraq)

Front 417

Baath

Back 417

secular Arab nationalist movement to combat Western rule. Sadda’s party.

Front 418

Bidonville

Back 418

French for irregular housing

Front 419

Gastarbeiter

Back 419

German for "guest worker"

Front 420

Proto-language

Back 420

Common ancestor of related families that form a language family

Front 421

Indo-European family

Back 421

Persian, Pashto,Kurdish, Armenian

Front 422

Altaic family

Back 422

Turkish

Front 423

Semitic family

Back 423

Arabic, Hebrew, Aramaic,

Front 424

Sects of Islam

Back 424

Sunni, Shii, Druze,Alawi

Front 425

Jews

Back 425

Speak Hebrew, Yiddish; Judaism

Front 426

Persians

Back 426

Speak Perisan (=Farsi); Muslim (Shii)

Front 427

Pashtos

Back 427

Speak Pashto; Muslim (Sunni)

Front 428

Kurds

Back 428

Speak Kurdish; Muslim (Sunni)

Front 429

Assyrians

Back 429

Speak Aramaic; Christian

Front 430

Turks

Back 430

Speak Turkish; Muslim (Sunni)

Front 431

Berbers

Back 431

Speak Berber; Muslim (Sunni)

Front 432

Armenians

Back 432

Speak Armenian; Christians

Front 433

Egypt

Back 433

Capital: Cairo

Back 434

"Mother of the World" "Gift of Nile"

Back 435

Most of population became Muslim/Arab

Front 436

Naguib Mahfouz (d. 2006)

Back 436

Egyptian novelist explores existentialism, Nobel prize for literature

Front 437

Herodotus

Back 437

Greek historian, regarded as Father of History in Western culture.

Front 438

Aswan Dam (= High Dam)

Back 438

Nasser

Front 439

Lake Nasser

Back 439

Resulted from construction of Aswn Dam

Front 440

Suez Canal

Back 440

allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without circumnavigation of Africa

Front 441

Alexandria

Back 441

2nd largest city in Egypt

Front 442

Al-Azhar University

Back 442

In Cairo, chief centre of Arabic and Islamic learning in the world

Front 443

British 1882

Back 443

British invades Egypt to establish puppet gov, retreated

Front 444

King Faroul (r. 1936-1952)

Back 444

Lavish king, deposed by Nasser and Free Officers

Front 445

Gamal Abd al-Nasser (r. 1954-1970)

Back 445

1st politician to articulate Pan-Arabis

Front 446

Free Officers

Back 446

Committed to unseating the Egyptian monarchy and British advisors, founded by Nasser

Front 447

Pan-Arabism

Back 447

unification among the peoples and countries of the Arab World

Front 448

United Arab Republic (1958-1961)

Back 448

A brief union between Egypt and Syria during Nasser’s term as first step toward pan-Arabism.

Front 449

Arab socialism

Back 449

Nasser redistributed land from wealthy to poor. Subsidized food, fixed price of basic commodities. Nationalized industries. Many Egyptians still depend on subsdies.

Front 450

Non-Aligned Movement

Back 450

Countries who chose to not join any Cold War blocs

Front 451

Anwar Sadat (r. 1970-1981)

Back 451

Succeeded Nasser, signed Camp David Accord and Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty--pissed off many Arabs. Pursued Open Door Policy. Assasinated. Street in Iran named after assasinator.

Front 452

Open-door policy

Back 452

Allowed for foreign aid and investment.

Front 453

Husni Mubarak (r. 1981- )

Back 453

Current president of Egypt

Front 454

Muslim Brotherhood

Back 454

opposes current Egyptian regime. Provides civil services gov. cannot provide and has support of many Egyptians.

Front 455

Copts

Back 455

Ethnoreligious term referring to Arabic-speaking Christians

Front 456

Fellah, fellahin

Back 456

peasant/farmer in M.E.

Front 457

Gamal Mubarak

Back 457

Son of current president, believed to be eventual successor.

Front 458

Kefaya

Back 458

grassroots coalition that opposes Mubarak

Front 459

Israel capital

Back 459

Capital: Jerusalem

Front 460

Jerusalem

Back 460

many countries keep embassies in Tel Aviv to avoid sensitivity

Front 461

Occupied Territories

Back 461

West Bank, East Jerusalem, Golan Heights, Gaza Strip

Front 462

West Bank

Back 462

Obtained from Jordan in Six-Day War. Under Israeli military occupation, but not annexed by Israel.

Front 463

Judaea/Samaria

Back 463

Biblical name for West Bank region.

Front 464

Golan Heights

Back 464

Captured from Syria by Israel during Six-Day War

Front 465

Negev

Back 465

desert region of southern Israel

Front 466

Ashkenzazi

Back 466

Jews descended from the medieval Jewish communities of the Rhineland in the west of Germany.

Front 467

Sephardi

Back 467

Jews of Spanish and Portugese origin.

Front 468

Mizrahi

Back 468

Jews descended from the Jewish communities of the Middle East, North Africa, Central Asia and the Caucasus

Front 469

Orthodox jews

Back 469

strict interpretation of Jewish texts

Front 470

Reform jews

Back 470

more progressive

Front 471

1967 Six-Day War

Back 471

Aka Arab-Israeli War. Fought between Israel and Arab neighbors Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. The nations of Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria also contributed troops and arms to the Arab forces. Conclusion: Israel had seized the Gaza Strip, the Sinai Peninsula, the West Bank of the Jordan River (including East Jerusalem), and the Golan Heights.

Front 472

1979 Camp David Accrds

Back 472

Signed by Egypt and Israel, witnessed by Carter, led directly to Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty.

Front 473

1993 Oslo Accords

Back 473

First direct, face-to-face agreement between Israel (Rabin) and Palestinians (PLO, represented by Yasser Arafat). It was the first time that some Palestinian factions publicly acknowledged Israel's right to exist, presided by Clinton. Called for Israel to withdraw forces from parts of Gaza Strip and West Bank; other issues left to be decided.

Front 474

Two-state solution

Back 474

envisions two separate states in the Western portion of the historic region of Palestine, one Jewish and another Arab

Front 475

Land for Peace

Back 475

general principle proposed for resolving the Arab-Israeli conflict by which the Israel would relinquish control of all or part of the territories it conquered in 1967 in return for peace with and recognition by the Arab world

Front 476

Ariel Sharon

Back 476

former Israeli Prime Minister and military leader.

Front 477

Ehud Olmert

Back 477

current Prime Minister of Israel

Front 478

Separation Fence/Apartheid Wall

Back 478

located mainly in West Bank

Front 479

Palestinian Authority

Back 479

administrative organization established to govern parts of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. President is Mahmoud Abbas.

Front 480

Yassir Arafat (d. 2004)

Back 480

Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization, President of the Palestinian National Authority. fighting against Israel in the name of Palestinian self-determination. Originally opposed to existence of Israel; later modified position.

Front 481

Palestine Liberation organization

Back 481

More recently, the PLO unofficially adopted a two-state solution.

Front 482

Jericho

Back 482

Town in the West Bank. Oldest continuously-inhabited city of the world.

Front 483

Mahmoud Abbas = Abu mazin

Back 483

President of the Palestinian National Authority; portrayed as face of Palestinian moderation.

Front 484

Hamas

Back 484

Militant organization calls for destruction of Israel. holds majority of elected legislative council of Palestinian National Authority. Election victories came as a surprise, seen as reaction against Arafat’s corruption. Runs extensive social programs and gaine d popularity. Leader of Hamas lives in Syria.

Front 485

Syria

Back 485

Capital: Damascus. Foe of Israel, want Golan heights back. Support insurgents against US in Iraq. “Rogue state”. Many Alawis.

Front 486

Aleppo

Back 486

ancient city in northern Syria, center of trade.

Front 487

Hamah

Back 487

City in Syria. Site of uprising by Muslim Brotherhood, shelled by Syrian army under Hafez al-Asad.

Front 488

Euphrates

Back 488

Potential for war over water use disputes between Turkey and Iraq.

Front 489

Hafez al-Asad (r. 1971-2000)

Back 489

Was president of Syria, longest-serving elected leader of any Arab state. Determined to avoid conflict with Israel, kept tight rein on Syrian-based PLO.

Front 490

Muslim Brotherhood

Back 490

Opposed Hafez al-Asad because he advanced Alawi interests over Sunni majority. Crushed brutally in Hama uprising.

Front 491

Bashar al-Asad (r. 2000- )

Back 491

Assad’s son. Syria amended constitution to bring down minimum age for presidency so Bashar can take over.

Front 492

Alawis

Back 492

Sect of Muslim prominent in Syria.

Front 493

Lebanon

Back 493

Capital: Beirut. Prime Minister Fuad Siniora. Large number of Maronites

Front 494

Levant

Back 494

geographic region covering Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Iraq

Front 495

Litani River

Back 495

River in Lebanon

Front 496

Baalbek

Back 496

Geography: in Lebanon, next to Litani river

Front 497

Confessionalism

Back 497

National Pact: oral agreement by various local leaders on 6 Christian: 5 Muslim ratio for all public offices. President must be Maronite.

Front 498

Maronites

Back 498

Christians in Lebanon

Front 499

Hizbollah

Back 499

Shiite movement, “Party of God.” Took root through opposition against Israeli occupation of southern Lebanon. 2006 Israel invades Lebanon in response to Hizbolla capturing Israeli soldiers.

Front 500

Hassan Nasrallah

Back 500

leader of Hizbollah, credited for ending Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon (only Arab force ever made Israel retreat) and playing major roles in prisoner exchange with Israel.

Front 501

Prime Minister Fuad Siniora

Back 501

Prime minister of Lebanon

Front 502

Rafiq Hariri

Back 502

Billionaire and ex-prime minister of Lebanon. Syria (had come in to help end Civil War) blamed for assassinating him, many protests, Syria leaves Lebanon.

Front 503

Iraq

Back 503

Capital: Baghdad. Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki.

Front 504

Mosul

Back 504

City, old admin district of Ottoman

Front 505

Basra

Back 505

City, old admin district of Ottoman

Front 506

Marsh Arabs

Back 506

inhabitants of the Tigris-Euphrates marshlands in the south and east of Iraq and along the Iranian border. Saddam destroyed them.

Front 507

Kurds

Back 507

Non-Arab minority in Iraq. Have their own regional gov. in iraq. Saddam used mustard gas against them in brutal anti-Kurdish campaign, saw as threat to territorial integrity.

Front 508

Assyrians

Back 508

Non-Arab minority in Iraq. many fled Iraq due to current war

Front 509

Turkomen

Back 509

non-Arab minority of Iraq, language and traditions oppressed by Saddam.

Front 510

Saddam Hussein (r. 1970-2003)

Back 510

a Sunni, oppressed the Shii (majority of Iraq)

Front 511

Baath

Back 511

secular Arab nationalist movement to combat Western rule. Sadda’s party.

Front 512

Iraq-Iran War (1980-1988)

Back 512

Completely pointless. No border change. Trench warfare.

Front 513

First Gulf War 1990

Back 513

Iraq accused Kuwait of stealing Iraq's oil through slant drilling. Iraq invades Kuwait, US + UK drives out Iraq. Operation Desert Storm.

Front 514

Kuweit

Back 514

Invaded and annexed by Iraq, then Iraq driven out by US.

Front 515

Operation Desert Storm

Back 515

military conflict between Iraq and a coalition force from 34 nations commissioned with expelling Iraqi forces from Kuwait after Iraq's occupation and annexation of Kuwait

Front 516

Nouri al-Maliki (2005- )

Back 516

Prime Minister of Iraq, signed order for execution of Saddam.

Front 517

Muqtada al-Sadr

Back 517

Iraqi theologian, political leader and militia commander. one of the most influential religious and political figures in the country not holding any official title in the Iraqi government. Leader of Mahdi Army.

Front 518

Sadr City

Back 518

district of Baghdad, lots of fighting between US and Madhi Army.

Front 519

Mahdi Army

Back 519

Iraqi paramilitary force created by the Iraqi Shi'ite cleric Muqtada al-Sadr. spearheaded the first major armed confrontation against the U.S.-led occupation forces in Iraq from the Shi'ite community.

Front 520

Jordan

Back 520

Capital: Amman. 60%-70% Palestinians. Rich in phosphates

Front 521

Petra

Back 521

archaeological site in Jordan

Front 522

Jordan River

Back 522

Historically and religiously, it is considered to be one of the world's most sacred rivers

Front 523

Transjordan

Back 523

Territory of Ottoman, geographically same as Jordan.

Front 524

King Husayn (r. 1953-1999)

Back 524

King of Jordan, direct lineage of Muhammed (Hashim family of Mecca). Carried out Black September, killed Palestinians.

Front 525

King Abdallah (r. 1999- )

Back 525

Son of Husayn

Front 526

Rania

Back 526

Queen Rania, wife of King Abdullah. Hot. Women’s rights champion.

Front 527

PLO

Back 527

launches rockets into Israel from Jordan, which suffers Israeli retaliation.

Front 528

West Bank

Back 528

simply gave up West Bank to Israel!

Front 529

Black September 1970

Back 529

Husayn began perceiving PLO as threat, attacked with Jordanian army. Palestinians more afraid of Jordanian army, fled to Israel!

Front 530

Munich 1972

Back 530

Palestinian terrorists killed Israeli athletes at Olympics.

Front 531

Saudi Arabia

Back 531

Capital: Riyadh. Strictly controlled press. King Abdallah current leader.

Front 532

Mecca

Back 532

birthplace of Muhammad

Front 533

Medina

Back 533

death place of Muhammad

Front 534

Ibn Saud (d. 1953)

Back 534

United the originally largely nomadic Arab tribes into Saudi Arabia. Absolute Monarchy.

Front 535

Wahhabi

Back 535

puritanical interpretation of Islam: no movies/music/martial arts…etc. Ideological root of Taliban + al Qaeda

Front 536

Hijaz

Back 536

region in the west of present-day Saudi Arabia, contains Mecca and Medina

Front 537

Jiddah

Back 537

major urban center of western Saudi Arabia. principal gateway to Mecca

Front 538

Empty Quarter

Back 538

one of the largest sand deserts in the world, encompassing most of the southern third of the Arabian Peninsula

Front 539

al-Hasa

Back 539

traditional oasis region in eastern Saudi Arabia

Front 540

King Abdallah

Back 540

Current leader.

Front 541

Servant of the Two Holy Shrines

Back 541

Title of king, refers to Mecca and Medina

Front 542

Yemen

Back 542

Capital: Sanaa. President Ali Saleh. "Arabia Felix" because fertile land due to adequate rainfall.

Front 543

Aden

Back 543

City in southern coast

Front 544

Frankincense

Back 544

Used as incense/perfume in Yemen.

Front 545

qat

Back 545

shrub generally used for chewing in Yemen.

Front 546

Ali Saleh

Back 546

President of Yemen

Front 547

Persian Gulf

Back 547

Between Iran and Saudi Arabia

Front 548

Arabian Gulf

Back 548

Historically refers to the Red Sea. A controversial name for the Persian Gulf used by proponents of pan-Arabism.

Front 549

Kuwait

Back 549

Capital Kuwait City

Front 550

Sabah family

Back 550

kuwait

Front 551

Bahrain

Back 551

Geography Only Arab island state.

Front 552

Qatar

Back 552

geography

Front 553

Al-Jazeera

Back 553

free-est press in M.E., based on Qatar

Front 554

United Emirates

Back 554

Abu Dhabi, Dubai

Front 555

Dubai Tower

Back 555

tallest building ever

Front 556

Oman

Back 556

Leader: Sultan Qabus

Front 557

Straights of Hormuz

Back 557

strategically important waterway between Arabian sea in southeast and the Persian Gulf in the southwest

Front 558

Sultan Qabus

Back 558

only obviously gay ruler in M.E.

Front 559

Maghreb

Back 559

Geographic region encompassing Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia.

Front 560

Berbers

Back 560

In Oman

Front 561

Morocco

Back 561

Capital: Rabat. King Muhammad.

Front 562

Casablanca

Back 562

Biggest city in Maghreb, lavish mosques....

Front 563

King Hassan II (r. 1961-1999)

Back 563

Morocco

Front 564

King Muhammad VI

Back 564

Morocco

Front 565

Algeria

Back 565

Capital: Algiers. President Abdelaziz Boutflika.

Front 566

Colon

Back 566

French settlers in Algeria

Front 567

Battle of Algiers

Back 567

struggle of Algerians against French

Front 568

Ahmed Ben Bella

Back 568

First president and Father of Algeria

Front 569

Abdelaziz Bouteflika (1999-)

Back 569

president of Algeria

Front 570

Islamic Salvation Front (FIS)

Back 570

Won election peacefully, sought Islamic based gov., but did not come into power gov. cancelled election

Front 571

Armed Islamic Group (GIA)

Back 571

Extremist, violent version of FIS

Front 572

Le pouvoir

Back 572

“power” in French, run the gov., military, led by elite.

Front 573

Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQ-M)

Back 573

Islamist militia (transformed from GIA) which aims to overthrow the Algerian government and institute an Islamic state

Front 574

Libya

Back 574

Capital: Tripoli. Colonel Qaddafi.

Front 575

Colonel Qaddafi (1969-)

Back 575

de facto leader of Libya since a 1969 coup, pro-pan-Arabism, Islamic socialism. dictator. proposed African unity. Green Book. Great Man-Made River.

Front 576

Green Book

Back 576

similar to Mao’s Red Book, stated Qaddafi’s ideologies

Front 577

Great Man-Made River

Back 577

built by Qaddafi. largest underground network of water pipelines extracts water from huge aquifer across Sahara.

Front 578

Lockerbie 1988

Back 578

US blamed Qaddafi for planting bomb onboard flight. Marginalized him.

Front 579

Tunishia

Back 579

Capital: Tunis. Most secular/socially liberal. Most competitive economy in Africa.

Front 580

Carthage

Back 580

City

Front 581

Habib Bourguiba (r. 1957-1988)

Back 581

1st president and dictator

Front 582

Zein el-Abidin Ben Ali (1988-)

Back 582

deposed Bourguiba