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118 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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as the frequency of the sound increases, what happens to the location of the maximal displacement
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MOVES TOWARDS THE BASE OF THE COCHLEA
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you are seated in a chair and spin in the leftward direction. the eye movement that is produced as a results of spinning is due to what stimulation
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AMPULLARY CREST
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enteric nervous system in respects to the CNS
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can act independently of the CNS
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what is the innervation of the receptive relaxation/vagovagal reflex
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dependent of VAGAL INNERVATION
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what stimulates secretion of pancreatic juice of low volume but high protein content...
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fats in duodenum
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what inhibits gastric juice emptying...
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1. acid in duodenum
2. fatty acid, mono- or diglyceride in duodenum 3. hypertonicity in duodenum 4. peptides and amino acids |
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what contraction is unique to the colon
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haustral contractions
mass movements (haustra disappears, replaced by waves of contraction resembling intense peristaltic waves) |
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what stimulation results in low volume/high protein content of saliva
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sympathetic nervous system
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what is the major stimulus for bile secretion
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presence of bile in hepatic portal system
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what is common to both stretch and inverse stretch reflex
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1. the reflex opposes action of muscle
2. the afferent branch enter spinal cord, one branch ascends to contribute info to cerebellum and cerebrum about motor control and proprioception |
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characteristic of INNER HAIR CELLS
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1. ONE row of inner hair cells
2. receives 90% of sensory inn. 3. ~10 afferent fibers per hair cell 4. sound detection and excitation 5. bending of hair cells in one direction causes DEPLORIZATION and an INCREASE in the release of transmitter. bending in the other direction produce opposite effect. |
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characteristic of OUTER HAIR CELLS
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1. 3 rows of outer hair cells
2. receives 10% of afferent inn. 3. can alter length 4. can augmentation of basilar membrane motion over 100fold during low intensity |
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person falls in the elevator, which part of ear is activated...
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macula
saccule |
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in fed state, which type of motility is most common to small intestine
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segmentation
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patient on synthetic steriods for a long time should taper their dose gradually bc they run the risk of...
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acute hypocortisolism due to decrease endogenous ACTH and cortisol production
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metabolic effects of cortisol
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1. increase blood glucose
2. increase protein catabolism in muscles 3. lipolysis 4. anti-inflammatory 5. negative calcium balance 6. mineralcorticoid activity |
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what are possible causes for HYPOCORTISOLISM
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1. infections
2. immune-mediated destruction of adrenals 3. congenital enzyme deficiencies in steriod synthesis (congenital adrenal hyperplasia) 4. hypopituitarism (decreased ACTH release) |
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what are possible causes for HYPERCORTISOLISM
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1. cortisol secreting tumors of adrenals
(primary hypersecretion-CUSHING'S SYNDROME) 2. pituitary hypersecretion of ACTH (secondary hypersecretion-CUSHING'S DISEASE) |
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what are clinical uses of GLUCOCORTICOIDS (cortisol)
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1. allergic reactions
2. post operative swelling 3. severe muscle inflammation 4. oral ulceration and mucosal lesions 5. uveatis, tubulointerstitial nephritis, temporal arteritis, thyroid ophthalmopathy |
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contraindication of GLUCOCORTICOIDS (cortisol)
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INFECTION
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what causes Addison's Disease? symptoms?
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HYPOCORTISOLISM
symptoms: 1. hypoglycemia 2. rapid fatigue 3. Na loss, hypotension, K retention (decrease aldosterone) 4. increased skin and oral mucosa pigmentation |
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what causes Cushing's Syndrome? symptoms?
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HYPERCORTISOLISM
symptoms: 1. hyperglycemia 2. muscle atrophy 3. Na retention, hypertension, K loss (inc. aldosterone) 4. osteoporosis 5. psychosis 6. deposition of fat (moonface) |
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what treats Graves Disease
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glucocorticoids
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what is goiters and it is present in patients with...
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enlarged thyroid gland (hypertrophy)
1. hyperthyroidism (inc. T3 & T4) 2. hypothyroidism (inc. TSH) |
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thyroxine (T4) & triiodothyronine (T3) effects on oxygen metabolism and heat production
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1. increase rate of oxygen production, mitochondria and Na/K pump activity
2. increase heat production critically important for development, growth and expression of GH |
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an increase in TSH is due to..
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endemic (dietary) hypothyroidism
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treatment for hyperthyroidism
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1. surgery
2. propylthiuouracil (inhibits synthesis of T3 & T4) 3. radioactive ablation of thyroid gland |
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treatment for hypothyroidism
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hormone replacement therapy, usually T4
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excessive growth hormone before puberty? after puberty?
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1. gigantism (whole body)
2. acromegaly (localized) |
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what derives from indolamines
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melatonin
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what is the 2nd messenger most used?
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cAMP
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insulin doesnt stimulate glucose uptake in...
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cortical neurons
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hyperinsulenemia is a result of
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increase in PLASMA INSULIN
decrease in PLASMA GLUCOSE |
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what happens in type 1 diabetes
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plasma insulin greatly decreases
plasma glucose greatly increases |
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what is the most common form of diabetes and what happens in this form...
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type 2 diabetes 90%
1. plasma insulin either increase of decrease 2. plasma glucose increase |
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what is a major stimuli of insulin secretion
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1. increase by high plasma glucose
2. increase by parasympathetic activity 3. decrease by sympathetic activity |
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what is a major stimuli of glucagon secretion
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INCREASE WITH
low plasma glucose and insulin |
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what do you use a glucagon injection
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1. patient is hypoglycemic
2. confusion 3. agitated 4. tachycardia |
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what does the liver release
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IGF-1
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what is stimulated by both insulin and IGF-1
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protein synthesis
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what does inhibin do? how is it produced
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1. decrease FSH
2. produced by high levels of estrogen inhibin causes one ovum to proceed to ovulation |
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what does progesterone do
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1. prepares the uterus for gestation (carrying baby)
2. builds up endometrium |
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in menopause there is an increase in...
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gonadotrophs (LH & FSH)
estrogen secretion declines |
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what does oxytocin do
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1. uterine smooth muscle contraction
2. milk ejection (milk duct smooth muscle contraction) 3. maternal bahavior 4. released during orgasm |
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a person elbow becomes edematous. what sensation will they lose in their fingers
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fine tactile discrimination
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most axons of receptors (except free nerve endings) are primarily
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mylinated A(beta) type fibers
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noxious stimuli reveal the presence of both...fibers
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A(delta) fibers
C fibers |
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thermo-cold receptors consist of what fibers...
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myelinated A(delta), but some C fibers
most numerous temperature receptor |
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thermo-warm receptors consist of what fibers
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C fibers
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what does inhibin do? how is it produced
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1. decrease FSH
2. produced by high levels of estrogen inhibin causes one ovum to proceed to ovulation |
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what does progesterone do
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1. prepares the uterus for gestation (carrying baby)
2. builds up endometrium |
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in menopause there is an increase in...
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gonadotrophs (LH & FSH)
estrogen secretion declines |
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what does oxytocin do
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1. uterine smooth muscle contraction
2. milk ejection (milk duct smooth muscle contraction) 3. maternal bahavior 4. released during orgasm |
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a person elbow becomes edematous. what sensation will they lose in their fingers
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fine tactile discrimination
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most axons of receptors (except free nerve endings) are primarily
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mylinated A(beta) type fibers
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noxious stimuli reveal the presence of both...fibers
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A(delta) fibers
C fibers |
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thermo-cold receptors consist of what fibers...
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myelinated A(delta), but some C fibers
most numerous temperature receptor |
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thermo-warm receptors consist of what fibers
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C fibers
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what the 2nd most used messenger
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cAMP
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insulin doesnt stimulate glucose uptake in...
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cortical neurons
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hyperinsulenemia is a result of
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increase in PLASMA INSULIN
decrease in PLASMA GLUCOSE |
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what happens in type 1 diabetes
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plasma INSULIN greatly DECREASES
plasma GLUCOSE greatly INCREASES |
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what is the most common form of diabetes and what happens in this form...
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type 2 diabetes 90%
1. plasma insulin either increase of decrease 2. plasma glucose increase |
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what is a major stimuli of insulin secretion
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1. increase by high plasma glucose
2. increase by parasympathetic activity 3. decrease by sympathetic activity |
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what is a major stimuli of glucagon secretion
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1. decrease by low plasma glucose
2. decrease by insulin |
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what do you use a glucagon injection
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1. patient is hypoglycemic
2. confusion 3. agitated 4. tachycardia |
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what does the liver release
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IGF-1
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what is stimulated by both insulin and IGF-1
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protein synthesis
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what does inhibin do? how is it produced
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1. decrease FSH
2. produced by high levels of estrogen inhibin causes one ovum to proceed to ovulation |
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what does progesterone do
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1. prepares the uterus for gestation (carrying baby)
2. builds up endometrium |
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in menopause there is an increase in...
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gonadotrophs (LH & FSH)
estrogen secretion declines |
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what does oxytocin do
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1. uterine smooth muscle contraction
2. milk ejection (milk duct smooth muscle contraction) 3. maternal bahavior 4. released during orgasm |
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a person elbow becomes edematous. what sensation will they lose in their fingers
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fine tactile discrimination
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most axons of receptors (except free nerve endings) are primarily
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mylinated A(beta) type fibers
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noxious stimuli reveal the presence of both...fibers
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A(delta) fibers
C fibers |
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thermo-cold receptors consist of what fibers...
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myelinated A(delta), but some C fibers
most numerous temperature receptor |
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thermo-warm receptors consist of what fibers
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C fibers
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what is the membranous labyrinth filled with...what are the fluids characteristics
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endolymph:
1. resembles intracellular fluid 2. high [K] & low [Na] |
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what is the bony labyrinth filled with...what are the fluids characteristics
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perilymph:
1. between bony and membranous labyrinth 2. resembles CSF 3. high [Na] & low [K] |
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where does impedance matching occur
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middle ear
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what is the purpose of the organ of corti? where is it located?
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1. transduction
2. middle of the three chambers |
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what does T4 and T3 do physiologically
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1. permissive & stimulatory action for GH
2. stimulate turnover (both catabolic and anabolic) 3. increase oxygen consumption and heat production 4. elevate plasma glucose (increase NE, epinephrine, cortisol, glucagon, GH) 5. increase cardiac output & SNS activity 6. increase motility, bile secretion and glucose absorption |
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what are the five types of receptors
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mechanoreceptors
chemoreceptors thermoreceptors photoreceptors nociceptors |
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what is transduction
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the process by which a stimulus is converted into physiologically useful information
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receptor potential (transduction)
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the change in membrane potential of the receptors as a result of the interaction with the stimulus
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generator potential (transduction)
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depolarization of the primary sensory ending produced by the stimulus.
leads to AP in the primary afferent fiber if depolarization is large enough |
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rapidly adapting receptors (phasic)
slowly adapting receptors (tonic) |
rapidly adapting receptors (phasic): response diminishes quickly, best suited for detecting rate of change of a stimulus, they stop firing when stimulus is constant
slowly adapting receptors (tonic): response is maintained |
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what is the RECEPTOR for stretch reflex (myotactic reflex)? inverse stretch reflex?
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1. muscle spindles
2. golgi tendon organ |
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how is cortisol secretion controled
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1.adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)- maintains basal circulatory level of cortisol
2.ACTH is released from the anterior pituitary gland (anterior hypophysis) 3.ACTH secretion is regulated by hypothalamic corticotrophin releasing factor or hormone (CRH) 4.cortisol exerts a negative feedback control over ACTH and CRH secretion |
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the follicular cells secrete...?
the C cells secrete...? |
1. thyroid hormone (T4 and T3)
2. calcitonin |
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what are some autoimmune conditions of thyroid disorders
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Hashimoto disease: hypothyroidism caused by antibodies that bind to thyroglobulin blocking T4/T3 production
Graves: hyperthyroidism caused by antibodies (TSI) |
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what is the retina pigment epithelium...what does it contain
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1. cells contain melanin/appears black
2. captures stray light 3. stores vit. A for exchange with photoreceptors |
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what is the bipolar layer...what does it contain
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contains: bipolar, horizontal, and amacrine cells
1. bipolar: connects rods and cones with ganglion cells 2. horizontal: scleral side/make horizontal photoR-photoR connections 3. amacrine: corneal side/make complex horizontal connection between bipolar cells and also connect bipolar to ganglion cells |
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what is the ganglion cell layer...what does it contain
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1. contains ganglion cells
2. transmit info from the retina 3. axons of ganglion cells form the optic nerve and optic tract 4. axons leave retina at optic disk |
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what are the common structures of the visual pigment
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chromophore:
1. light absorbing part of the molecule 2. consists of 11-cis vitamin A aldehyde (retinal) opsin: 1. colorless protein 2. binds to chromophore 3. spectral sensitivity |
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dark current is caused by...
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1. high conductance to Na
2. thus keeps membrane potential closer to E(Na) |
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what does metarhodopsin II do?
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1. reduces the dark current in the outer segment
2. causes HYPERPOLERIZATION as membrane potential moves closer to E(K) |
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what is the photochemical pathway
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1. 11-cis retinal convert to all trans retinal
2. produces metarhodopsin II 3. metarhodopson II activates G-protein (transducin) 4. transducin stimulates phosphodiesterase which hydrolyzes cGMP 5. without cGMP...sodium channels closes |
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which column respond to stimuli of same direction...slightly different orientation?
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vertical column
adjacent column |
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what are simple cells in the higher processing of the visual cortex
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1. receives direct input from genicular cells
2. responds best to bars of light with correct orientation |
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difference between COMPLEX CELLS and END-STOP CELLS in higher processing in the visual cortex
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1. BOTH: responds best to more complicated stimuli (deeper or superficial than simple cells)
2. Complex cells: respond to bars of light with correct orientation but have a wider receptive field 3. end-stop cells: respond to corners that are moving across the visual field |
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role of superior colliculus in the visual system
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1. determine location of objects
2. participates in some reflex eye movements 3. blind sight |
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what is primary hyperalgesia and what causes it
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localize pain
nociceptors become more sensative causes: 1.potassium 2.serotonin 3.histamine 4.bradykinins 5.prostaglandins 6.axon reflex (substance P causes histamine release from mast cells and vasodilation around area) |
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what is secondary hyperalgesia and what causes it
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1. result of persistent C fiber activity, the size of EPSPs on the dorsal horn neurons increases progressively
2. wind up |
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what causes "wind up" in secondary hyperalgesia
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1. caused by glutamate released from C fibers acting on NMDA receptors on the dorsal horn cells
2. very similar to Long Term Potentiation 3. substance P involvement (produces slow, long-lasting deplorization) 4. NMDA receptors also induce hyper excitability in the dorsal horn |
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what is allodynia and what causes it
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1. occur in region outside of flare when previously nonpainful mechanical stimulus is now painful
2. results from mechanoreceptors projecting to neurons in the nociceptive pathway normally mechanoreceptors projecting too small to activate nociceptive pathway but after injury, central nociceptive neurons become supersensitive and now mechanoreceptors input excites nociceptive neurons |
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calcium and phosphate balance primarily depends on three hormones
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1.parathyroid hormone (PTH)
2.vitamin D (calcitriol) 3.calcitonin |
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what does parathyroid hormone do
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1. increase calcium plasma
2. increase renal reabsorption of calcium 3. stimulate calcitriol production (increase Ca absorption in GI) 4. DECREASE phosphate plasma by excretion |
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hypercalcemia causes...
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1.decreased neuromuscular excitability and neurotransmission
2.muscle weakness 3.decreased GI motility 4.arrhythmias 5.hypertension 6.hypercalcuria (kidney stones) 7.abnormal Ca-phosphate deposits in bones and soft tissues |
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how does secondary hyperthyroidism cause osteodystrophy from renal failure
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RENAL FAILURE
1.decreased GFR 2.increased serum phosphate 3.increased osteoid calcium deposition in bones 4.decreased serum calcium 5.increase PTH secretion 6.increase serum calcium 7.decrease serum phosphate RENAL OSTEODYSTROPHY |
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what does HYPOPARATHYROIDISM cause
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low plasma PTH
decreased vit. D production HYPOCALCEMIA: 1.neuromuscular irritability 2.numbness 3.paresthesias (pins and needles) 4.tetanic muscle contraction (hands/feet/LARYNX) 5.epilepsy 6.arrhythemias 7.osteoporosis |
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what stimulates vitamin D secretion? what does vitamin D do?
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1. PTH and low plasma phosphate
2. activates both bone resorption and minerlization |
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what is the stimuli for secretion of calcitonin? what are the effects of calcitonin?
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high plasma calcium
decreases bone reabsorption decrease suppression of osteoclasts ANTAGONISTIC TO PTH |
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what are the SIX hormones of the anterior pituitary
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1. adrenocorticotropin ACTH
2. somatotropin GH 3. thyrotropin TSH 4. follicle-stimulating hormone FSH 5. luteinizing hormone LtH 6. prolactin |
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type II cells...
what type of receptors do they have? what tastes do they tranduce? how does it excite afferent nerve fibers? |
1. possess G protein-coupled receptors
2. tranduce sweet, bitter or umami taste 3. release ATP via gap junctions |
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type III cells...
what tastes do they tranduce?how does it excite afferent nerve fibers? |
1. tranduce sour and salty
2. release serotonin onto afferent nerves |
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anterior 2/3 of tongue is innervated by...? posterior 1/3? lateral borders?
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1. facial nerve
2 glossopharyngeal nerve 3. glossopharyngeal nerve |
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what innervates the...for the remaining taste buds
palate? pharynx? upper esophagus? |
1. facial
2. vagus 3. vagus |
