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911 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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The vestibular system is related to the ______ system. |
auditory |
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The auditory system is related to the ________ system. |
vestibular |
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TRUE OR FALSE: Neither the gustatory sense (taste) nor olfaction (smell) are chemical senses. |
False, both are chemical senses. |
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The sense of ___________ evolved from special mechanical receptors related to the touch system. |
audition (hearing) |
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What does the auditory system detect? |
Changes in the vibration of air molecules that are caused by sound sources. |
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Intensity is measured as _________ |
Decibels (dB) |
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What is measured in decibels (dB)? |
Sound intensity (loudness) |
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Sound intensity, measured in decibels (dB) is perceived as ________ |
loudness |
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Unit of measure for sound frequency |
Hertz (Hz) |
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Hertz is a unit of measure for what aspect of sound? |
Frequency (perceived as the pitch of a sound.) |
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What are the two ways in which a sound is measured? |
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Intensity is also known as |
Amplitude |
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Amplitude is also known as __________ |
Intensity |
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Amplitude |
The force that sound exerts per unit area (usually measured as dynes per sq cm). Amplitude corresponds to the volume of a sound and is also known as intensity. |
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The force that sound exerts per unit area
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Amplitude (Intensity) |
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How is amplitude measured? |
Amplitude, or intensity, is usually measured in dynes per square centimeter. |
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_____________ is usually measured in dynes per square centimeter.
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Amplitude |
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A single alternation of compression and expansion of air. |
Cycle |
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Pure Tone |
A sound that has only ONE frequency of vibration. |
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___________ is a sound that has only ONE frequency of vibration. |
Pure Tone |
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How is a pure tone represented? |
A pure tone is represented as a sine wave. |
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A pure tone is described physically in terms of what two measures? |
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Frequency |
the # of cycles per second in a sound wave; measured in hertz (Hz) |
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The number of cycles per second in a sound wave; measured in hertz (Hz) |
Frequency |
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Frequency is heard as __________ |
pitch |
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The pitch of a sound is its __________ |
Frequency |
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Fundamental Frequency |
The predominant frequency of a tone or visual scene. |
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Harmonics |
A multiple of the fundamental frequency (Example - if the fundamental frequency - 440Hz the harmonics will = 880, 1,320, 1,760 etc) |
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Timbre |
the characteristic sound quality of a musical instrument, as determined by the relative intensity of its various harmonics. |
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What quality of sound is determined by the relative intensity of the various harmonics in an instrument? |
Timbre |
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Transduction |
conversion of one form of energy into another. |
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___________ is the conversion of one form of energy into another |
Transduction |
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What is the purpose of the pinna, or external ear? |
The external ear captures, focuses, and filters sound into the second part of the ear -- the ear canal. |
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This part of the ear captures, focuses, and filters sound into the second part of the ear -- the ear canal. |
The pinna, or external ear. |
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Ear Canal |
the tube that leads from the pinna to the tympanic membrane |
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___________ Is the tube that leads from the pinna to the tympanic membrane. |
Ear Canal |
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The ear canal is also known as the |
auditory canal |
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the auditory canal is also known as the |
ear canal |
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The __________ part of the ear is a distinctive characteristic of mammals |
Pinna |
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What is the purpose of the "hills and valleys" of the pinna? |
To modify the character of sound that reaches the middle ear. Some frequencies are enhanced, others are suppressed. Human ears enhance 2,000 - 5,000 Hz sounds because those are critical for speech perception. |
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These structures modify the character of sound, enhancing some frequencies and suppressing others. |
the "hills and valleys" of the pinna (external ear) |
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The frequency range human ears enhance |
2,000 - 5,000 Hz |
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Why does the human ear enhance frequencies of 2,000 - 5,000 Hz? |
because those are critial for speech perception. |
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Aside from frequency enhancement and suppression the pinna is also important in ______________ |
identifying and locating sound source |
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Part of the ear important in identifying and locating sound source |
Pinna |
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What part of the ear concentrates sound energies? |
Middle Ear |
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The cavity between the tympanic membrane and the cochlea. |
Middle Ear |
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Middle Ear |
the cavity between the tympanic membrane and the cochlea. |
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The tympanic membrane is also known as |
the eardrum |
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the eardrum is also known as |
the tympanic membrane |
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Tympanic membrane |
the partition between the external ear and the middle ear. |
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The partition between the external ear and the middle ear. |
Tympanic Membrane |
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Inner Ear |
The cochlea and vestibular apparatus. |
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The cochlea and vestibular apparatus make up the |
inner ear |
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The end of the ear canal is sealed by the |
tympanic membrane |
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The tympanic membrane seals the |
end of the ear canal |
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Ossicles |
Three small bones that transmit vibration across the middle ear, from the tympanic membrane to the oval window.
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Three small bones that transmit vibration across the middle ear, from the tympanic membrane to the oval window. |
Ossicles
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What is the function of the ossicles? |
The ossicles mechanically couple the tympanic membrane to the inner ear at the oval window. |
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What do the ossicles connect? |
The ossicles mechanically couple the tympanic membrane to the inner ear at the oval window. |
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Oval Window |
the opening from the middle ear to the inner ear |
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The opening from the middle ear to the inner ear is called the |
oval window |
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Malleus |
(Latin for "Hammer") the Malleus is a middle ear bone (ossicle) that is connected to the tympanic membrane. |
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The Malleus is also known as |
the Hammer |
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The Malleus is a _________ |
Ossicle |
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The Malleus is part of what part of the ear? |
the middle ear. The Malleus is the ossicle that is connected to the tympanic membrane. |
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The ossicle connected to the tympanic membrane is the |
Malleus |
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Also known as the Hammer |
Malleus |
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The Incus is also known as |
the anvil |
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The anvil is also known as |
the incus |
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The ossicle that is situated in the middle is the |
Incus |
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the stirrup is also known as |
the stapes |
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Stapes |
(Latin for stirrup) -- a middle ear bone (ossicle) that is connected to the oval window. |
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The ossicle that is connected to the oval window. |
Stapes (stirrup) |
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What is connected to the oval window |
Stapes, and ossicle or bone of the middle ear. |
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What happens when sound waves strike the tympanic membrane? |
The tympanic membrane vibrates with the same frequency (Hz) as the source sound. |
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When a sound wave strikes the tympanic membrane and cause it to vibrate in the same frequency as the source sound, what happens? |
The ossicles start moving |
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What causes the concentration and amplification of vibrations that focus the pressures from the larger tympanic membrane onto the smaller oval window? |
How the ossicles are attached to the tympanic membrane. |
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What is the purpose of how the ossicles concentrate and amplify the vibrations to force the pressure from the larger tympanic membrane onto the smaller oval window? |
The amplification is crucial for converting air vibrations into inner ear fluid movements. |
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What is a crucial element of how air vibrations are converted into inner ear fluid movements? |
The ossicles concentrating and amplifying the vibrations of sound from the larger tympanic membrane onto the smaller oval window. |
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How does the middle ear protect us from damaging loud sounds? |
Within 200 ms. of a loud sound the brain signals muscles to contract -- stiffening the ossicles and reducing the effectiveness to sounds. |
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When does the brain signal the tensor tympani and the stapedius to contract? |
Within 200 milliseconds of a loud sound -- this stiffens the ossicles and reduces the effectiveness to loud sounds. |
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Muscles that attach to each end of the chain of ossicles. |
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Stapedius |
a middle ear muscle that is attached to the stapes. |
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The middle ear muscle that is attached to the stapes |
Stapedius |
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What attaches the malleus to the tympanic membrane |
the tensor tympani - a middle ear muscle |
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The tensor tympani attaches the |
tympanic membrane to the malleus |
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When sound waves strike the tympanic membrane this causes |
the tympanic membrane to vibrate at the same frequency as the sound. |
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Why don't the noises we make seem overly loud to us? |
Because the middle ear muscles, the tensor tympani and stapedius also activate just before we make a sound. This reduces the effectiveness to loud sounds and prevents our own voice from seeming loud to us. |
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What part of the ear transduces vibrational energy into neural activity |
The cochlea |
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Cochlea |
A snail-shaped structure in the inner ear that contains the primary receptors for hearing. |
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A snail shaped structure in the inner ear that contains the primary receptors for hearing |
Cochlea |
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Where are the primary receptors for hearing located? |
In the Cochlea |
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the vestibular canal, the middle canal, and the tympanic canal are |
the three canals of the cochlea |
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the vestibular canal is also known as the |
scala vestibuli (one of three canals in the cochlea) |
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the scala vestibuli is also known as the |
vestibular canal (one of three canals in the cochlea) |
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the middle canal is also known as the |
scala media (The central of three canals in the cochlea) |
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the scala media is also known as the |
middle canal of the cochlea (The central of the three canals in the cochlea) |
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the tympanic canal is also known as |
the scala tympani (one of the three canals in the cochlea) |
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the scala tympani is also known as |
the tympanic canal (one of the three canals in the cochlea) |
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The middle canal is the |
central of 3 spiralling canals inside the cochlea, situated between the vestibular canal and the tympanic canal |
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what is situated between the vestibular canal and the tympanic canal? |
the middle canal (scala media) -- the central of three canals in the cochlea |
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measurements of the cochlea |
the cochlea measures about 4 mm in diameter and 35 - 40 mm long in adults. |
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This part of the ear measures 4 mm in diameter and 35 - 40 mm long in the average adult. |
the cochlea |
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what is the purpose of the round window? |
because the fluid in the canals of the cochlea is not compressible, when the stapes pushes onto the oval window the round window bulges out a bit |
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What separates the tympanic CANAL from the middle ear? |
A flexible membrane called the round window |
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The round window separates what? |
the tympanic CANAL from the middle ear |
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Round Window |
A membrane separating the tympanic CANAL from the middle ear |
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What part of the cochlea converts sound into neural activity? |
the organ of Corti |
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What is the purpose of the Organ of Corti? |
the Organ of Corti is the part of the cochlea that converts sounds into neural activity. |
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Organ of Corti |
A structure in the middle ear that lies on the basilar membrane of the cochlea and contains the hair cells and terminations of the auditory nerve |
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A structure in the middle ear that lies on the basilar membrane of the cochlea and contains the hair cells and terminations of the auditory nerve |
Organ of Corti |
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Where are hair cells contained? |
the organ of corti |
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Where are the terminations of the auditory nerve? |
The Organ of Corti |
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Where are the terminations of the auditory nerve and hair cells? |
The Organ of Corti |
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What are the 3 main structures in the Organ of Corti? |
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Hair cells are one of three main structures of ___ |
the organ of corti |
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the terminations of auditory nerve fibers are one of three main structures of |
the organ of corti |
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Besides the terminations of auditory nerve fibers and hair cells, what other structure makes up the organ of corti? |
supporting cells |
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What is the base of the organ of corti? |
The Basilar Membrane |
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Where is the Basilar Membrane located? |
at the base of the Organ of Corti |
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Basilar Membrane |
a membrane in the cochlea that contains the principal structures involved in auditory transduction |
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a membrane in the cochlea that contains the principal structures involved in auditory transduction |
Basilar Membrane |
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The Basilar Membrane is located inside the |
cochlea |
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Hair Cells |
One of the receptor cells for hearing in the cochlea |
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the stapes moves in and out because sound waves his the tympanic membrane and this |
ripples fluid in the vestibular canal |
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what causes ripples in the fluid inside the vestibular canal? |
When the stapes moves in and out in response to sound waves striking the tympanic membrane. |
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What happens when fluid inside the vestibular canal ripples? |
It causes the Basilar Membrane to ripple. |
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What causes the Basilar Membrane to ripple? |
when fluid inside the vestibular canal ripples |
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What shape is the basilar membrane? |
The basilar membrane is tapered, narrowest at the base where high frequency sounds have their greatest effect and widest at the apex where low frequency sounds have their greatest effect |
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what part of the basilar membrane is where high frequency sounds have their greatest effect? |
The base -- the narrowest part of the basilar membrane. |
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What part of the basilar membrane is where low-frequency sounds have the greatest effect? |
The apex -- the widest part of the basilar membrane. |
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How does the cochlea determine the frequency of sound? |
the frequency of sounds is encoded by the specific location on the basilar membrane that shows the largest vibration in response to that sound. |
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Place Coding |
the differential response to sounds depending on the location along the membrane |
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The differential response to sounds depending on the location along the membrane. |
Place Coding |
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Hair cells transduce |
movements of the basilar membrane into electrical signals |
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what transduces the movements of the basilar membrane into electrical signals? |
Hair cells |
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_____________ is what ultimately gets converted into neural activity |
The movements of the basilar membrane (this happens through the actions of hair cells) |
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Stereocilium |
A stiff hair that protrudes from a hair cell in the auditory or vestibular system. |
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A stiff hair cell that protrudes from a hair cell in the auditory or vestibular system. |
Stereocilium |
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Where are stereocilium located? |
in the auditory or vestibular system on the upper surface of the hair cells. |
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How do stereocilia form a mechanical bridge between the basilar membrane and the tectoral membrane? |
Although the bases of hair cells are implanted in the basilar membrane, their stereocilia penetrate the tectorial membrane above to form a mechanical bridge between the two membranes. |
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What forms the bridge between the basilar membrane and the tectoral membrane? |
Stereocilia on hair cells |
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The bases of hair cells are implanted in |
the basilar membrane |
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while the bases of hair cells are implanted in the basilar membrane, the hair cells stretch upward towards the |
tectorial membrane where the hair cells' stereocilia penetrate the tectoral membrane to form a mechanical bridge between the two membranes. |
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Techtorial Membrane |
A membrane that sits atop the organ of corti in the cochlear duct |
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A membrane that sits above the organ of corti in the cochlear duct |
Techtorial membrane |
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How large of a deflection of stereocilia do you need to produce a large depolarization of hair cells and why? |
You only need a tiny deflection of the stereocilia to produce a large depolarization of hair cells because of the tip links that connect the non-selective ion channels to the tips of neighboring stereocilia |
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How are the stereocilia on hair cells connected to one another? |
Via tip links that connect the non-selective ion channels to the tips of neighboring stereocilia. |
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What happens when the tip links physically pop open the non-selective ion channels? |
A rapid depolarization of the hair cell as K+ and Ca++ rush in. |
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what does depolarization of a hair cell lead to? |
a rapid influx of Ca++ at the base of the hair cell? |
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The rapid influx of Ca++ at the base of the hair cell causes |
synaptic vesicles there to fuse with the presynaptic membrane and release neurotransmitters to stimulate adjacent nerve fibers. |
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What caues the synaptic vesicles at the base of the hair cell to release neurotransmitters? |
The rapid influx of Ca++ at the base of the hair cell fuse with the presynaptic membrane and release neurotransmitters to stimulate adjacent nerve fibers. |
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When do the stereocilia close their non-selective ion channels? |
The stereocilia close their non-selective ion channels when the hair cell sways back into its normal position. |
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Stereocilia's ability to rapidly switch on and off allows hair cells to |
track the rapid oscillations of the basilar membrane |
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Inner Hair Cells |
1 of the 2 types of receptor cells for hearing in the cochlea. IHCs are closer to the central axis of the cochlea. |
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____________ are the hair cells closer to the central axis of the cochlea. |
Inner Hair Cells (IHC) |
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____________ hair cells are farther from the axis of the cochlea |
Outer Hair Cells (OHC) |
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Vestibulocochlear Nerve |
Cranial nerve VIII that runs from the cochlea to the brainstem auditory nuclei. |
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Cranial Nerve VIII is also known as |
The Vestibulocochlear Nerve |
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The Vestibulocochlear Nerve (Cranial Nerve VIII) runs from |
the cochlea to the brainstem auditory nuclei |
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This nerve runs from the cochlea to the brainstem auditory nuclei. |
Vestibulocochlear Nerve (Cranial Nerve VIII) |
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How are hair cells organized within the human cochlea? |
In the human cochlea the hair cells are organized into a single row of about 3,500 IHCs and 12,000 OHCs in 3 rows. |
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How are IHCs organized within the human cochlea? |
3,500 IHCs in a single row. |
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How are OHCs organized within the human cochlea? |
12,000 OHCs are organized in 3 rows |
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Approximately how many IHCs does the human cochlea contain? |
3,500 IHCs |
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Approximately how many OHCs does the human cochlea contain? |
12,000 OHC are organized in three rows inside the cochlea |
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The fibers of the vestibulocochlear nerve (Cranial Nerve VIII) contact |
the base of the hair cells |
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IHC Afferents,IHC Efferents, OHC Afferents, and OHC Efferents are all |
Neural connections within hair cells, each one relying on a different neurotransmitter. |
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IHC Afferents |
Convey to the brain action potentials that provide the perception of sound. IHC are about 95% of the fibers leading to the brain. |
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These make up 95% of the fibers leading to the brain. |
IHC Afferents -- Convey to the brain action potentials that provide the perception of sound. |
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These convey to the brain action potentials that provide the perception of sound. |
IHC Afferents |
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IHC Efferents |
Lead from the brain to the IHCs -- Through which the brain can control IHC responsiveness. |
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OHC Afferents |
Convey info to the brain about the mechanical state of the basilar membrane (but not perceptions of sound) |
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OHC Efferents |
Lead from the brain to the OHCs allowing them to control the stiffness of regions of the basilar membrane to sharpen its tuning |
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Convey info to the brain about the mechanical state of the basilar membrane (but not the perception of sounds) |
OHC Afferents |
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lead from the brain to the OHCs allowing them to control the stiffness of regions of the basilar membrane to sharpen its tuning |
OHC Efferents |
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Afferent |
in reference to an axon, carrying nerve impulses from a sensory organ to the CNS or from one region to another region of interest. |
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In reference to an axon, carrying nerve impulses from a sensory organ to the CNS or from one region to another of interest. |
Afferent |
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Efferent |
In reference to an axon, carrying information from the nervous system to the periphery, or from a region of interest to another. |
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In reference to an axon, carrying the information from the nervous system to the periphery, or from one region of interest to another. |
Efferent |
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What frequencies will IHC afferents respond to? |
Each IHC afferent has a maximum sensitivity to a particular frequency of sound, but will ALSO respond to neighboring frequencies if the sound is loud enough |
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Each _______________ has a maximum sensitivity to a particular frequency of sound but will also respond to a neighboring frequency if the sound is loud enough. |
IHC Afferent |
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Tuning Curve |
A graph of the responses of a single auditory nerve fiber or neuron to sounds that vary in frequency and intensity. |
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A graph of the responses of a single auditory nerve fiber or neuron to sounds that vary in frequency and intensity. |
Tuning Curve |
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THIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF WHAT? --if an auditory neuron has its best frequency at 1,200 Hz (a very weak tone) -- but for sounds that are 20 dB louder the cell will respond in frequencies from 500 - 1,800Hz |
Tuning Curve |
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Auditory brain stem pathways run from where to where? |
Auditory brain stem pathways run from the brainstem to the cortex. |
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Brainstem |
The region of the brain that consists of the:
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The region of the brain that consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla. |
Brainstem |
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The midbrain is part of the |
Brainstem |
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the pons is part of the |
brainstem |
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the medulla is part of the |
brainstem |
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Cortex |
the outer layer of a structure |
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Most of the auditory part of the Vestibulocochlear Nerve (Cranial Nerve VIII) is made up of |
Most of the auditory part of the Vestibulocochlear Nerve (Cranial Nerve VIII) is made up of nerve fibers carrying info from the IHCs to the brainstem. |
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At ___________ the auditory fibers terminate in the cochlear nuclei where some initial processing occurs. |
At the brainstem the auditory fibers terminate in the cochlear nuclei where some initial processing occurs. |
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At the brainstem the _____________ terminate in the cochlear nuclei where some initial processing occurs. |
auditory fibers |
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At the brainstem the auditory fibers terminate in the ________________ where some initial processing occurs. |
Coclear Nuclei |
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Where does initial auditory processing occur |
The cochlear nuclei |
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Cochlear Nucleus |
Left and right brainstem nuclei that receive input from auditory hair cells and send output to the superior olivary nucleus. |
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Left and right brainstem nuclei that receive input from auditory hair cells and send output to the superior olivary nucleus. |
Cochlear Nucleus |
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What sends output to the superior olivary nucleus? |
Cochlear Nucleus |
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Superior Olivary Nucleus receives information from the |
Cochlear Nucleus |
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Superior Olivary Nucleus |
Left and right nuclei that receive input from the left and right cochlear nuclei and provide the first binaural analysis of auditory information? |
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Left and right nuclei that receive input from the left and right cochlear nuclei and provide the first binaural analysis of auditory information |
Superior Olivary Nucleus |
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Where does the first binarual analysis of auditory information occur? |
Superior Olivary Nucleus |
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The __________ pass the binarual info to the inferior colliculi -- the primary auditory centers of the midbrain |
superior olivary nuclei |
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the superior olivary nuclei pass ________ info to the inferior colliculli -- the primary auditory centers of the midbrain |
binaural |
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the superior olivary nuclei pass binaural info to the ______________ |
the inferior colliculli -- the primary auditory centers of the midbrain |
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What is the primary auditory center of the midbrain? |
the inferior colliculi |
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Inferior Colliculi |
Paired grey matter structures of the dorsal midbrain that process auditory info. |
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Paired grey matter structures of the dorsal midbrain that process auditory info. |
Inferior Colliculi |
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The middle division of the brain |
Midbrain |
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Where do the outputs of the inferior colliculi go? |
to the medial geniculate nuclei of the thalamus |
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the medial geniculate nuclei of the thalamus gets its input from |
the inferior colliculi |
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Medial Geniculate Nucleus |
The left and right nuclei in the thalamus that receive input from the inferior colliculi and send output to the auditory cortex. |
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The left and right nuclei in the thalamus that receive input from the inferior colliculi and send output to the auditory cortex. |
Medial Geniculate Nucleus |
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The medial geniculate nucleus is located in the |
thalamus |
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The inferior Colliculi sends output to |
the auditory cortex |
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the auditory cortex gets its input from |
the Inferior Colliculi |
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Thalamus |
the brain regions at the top of the brainstem that receive input from the inferior colliculi and send output to the auditory cortex. |
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The brain regions at the top of the brainstem that receive input from the inferior colliculi and send output to the auditory cortex. |
Thalamus |
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At least 2 pathways from the medial geniculate nucleus extend to |
several auditory cortical areas |
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Tonotopic Organization |
A major organizational feature in auditory systems where neurons are arranged as an orderly map of stimulus frequency with cells responsive to high frequency located at a distance from those responsive to low frequency. |
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A major organizational feature in auditory systems where neurons are arranged as an orderly map of stimulus frequency with cells responsive to high frequency located at a distance from those that are responsive to low frequencies. |
Tonotopic Organization |
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Low Frequency sounds are heard as |
Bass |
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High Frequency Sounds are heard as |
Treble |
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Treble is __________ frequency |
high |
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at the higher levels of the auditory system, auditory neurons are not only excited by certain frequencies they are _________ |
also inhibited by neighboring frequencies |
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What does the excitation and inhibition of auditory neurons in the higher levels of the auditory system used for? |
They help us discriminate tiny differences in the frequencies of sound. |
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How do we discriminate tiny differences in the frequency of sound? |
Because at the higher levels of the auditory system auditory neurons are not only excited by certain frequencies they are also inhibited by neighboring frequencies. |
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Many sounds activate the _______ |
primary auditory cortex (Example - tones, noise, etc) |
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Where is the primary auditory cortex located? |
on the upper surface of the temporal lobes |
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Speech sounds activate both |
the primary auditory cortex on the upper surface of the temporal lobes and more specialized auditory areas |
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These sounds activate the primary auditory cortex on the upper surface of the temporal lobes and more specialized auditory areas. |
speech sounds |
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Tones, notes, and noise activate the |
primary auditory cortex on the upper surface of the temporal lobes, but not the more specialized auditory areas involved when you hear speech. |
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Areas of the brain activated during lip reading |
are the primary auditory cortex on the upper surface of the temporal lobes AND the more specialized areas involved when you hear speech. |
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The fact that the parts of the brain active during lip reading are the same parts of the brain active when people hear speech indicates _______ |
that the auditory cortex integrates non-auditory info with sounds. |
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How do we know that the auditory cortex integrates non-auditory info with sounds? |
Because the parts of the brain active during lip reading are the same parts of the brain active when listening to speech. |
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ampulla
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An enlarged region of each semicircular canal that contains the receptor cells (hair cells) of the vestibular system.
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The inability to smell.
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anosmia |
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anosmia
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The inability to smell.
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PNS is also known as |
The Peripheral Nervous System |
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The _____ has an array of miniature acoustic detectors packed into a space the size of a pea. |
PNS |
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The transduction of air molecules into neural activity is ______________________ response than photoreceptors |
1000x Faster in their response |
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Which are faster in response time; photoreceptors or auditory receptors? |
Auditory receptors are 1000x faster than photoreceptors. |
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Steps of peripheral processing in audition. |
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The steps of central processing in audition. |
(OLIVES COLLS CARS-motor sys- THA EX) |
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Sound is |
pressure waves generated by vibrating air molecules; displacement as little as 10 picometers can be heard. |
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The 4 major features of sound waves |
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Amplitude is measured in |
decibels (dB) |
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Decibels (db) measures which of the four aspects of sound? |
Amplitude (Intensity/Loudness) |
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Hertz measures which of the four features of sound? |
Frequency |
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Frequency is measured in |
Herzt (Hz) |
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The amplitude of a sound plotted against time is known as |
its waveform |
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Why is the phase of a sound important? |
Because it is important for sound localization. |
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Measurement that goes from peak to peak of a soundwave is its |
amplitude (or intensity) |
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What is the frequency range for human hearing? |
15Hz - 20,000 Hz |
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Fourier Analysis |
a mathematical process used to analyze sounds as the sum of sine waves. |
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A mathematical process used to analyze sounds as the sum of sine waves. |
Fourier Analysis |
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Parts of the Outer Ear |
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The Pinna and External Auditory Canal are parts of the ______________ |
Outer ear |
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The pinna and the concha are shaped to |
filter sound waves from different elevations |
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These ear structures are shaped to filter sound waves from different elevations. |
Pinna and Concha |
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The purpose of the Auditory Meatus is to |
Amplify; it boosts sound pressure 30 - 100 fold. |
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This structure in the ear is intended to amplify sound, it can boost sound pressure 30 - 100 fold. |
Auditory Meatus |
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The purpose of the middle ear is to |
concentrate sound energies |
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This part of the ear transforms airborne sounds into vibrations that can be detected by hair cells |
the middle ear |
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This part of the ear boosts air pressure 200 fold in order to overcome air-fluid transition. |
Middle ear |
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The two mechanical processes of the middle ear are |
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Conductive Hearing Loss can occur as a result of |
Conductive hearing loss can occur as a result of ossification of middle ear bones or damage to the outer ear. |
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This type of hearing loss can occur as a result of the ossification of middle ear bones or damage to the outer ear. |
Conductive Hearing Loss |
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Why does ossification of the middle ear bones or damage to the outer ear often result in conductive hearing loss? |
because it lowers the efficency of energy transfer. |
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This membrane attaches to the malleus |
The tympanic membrane |
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The tympanic membrane attaches to what bone? |
the malleus |
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The stapes attaches to what membrane? |
the oval window |
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the oval window is attached to what bone? |
The stapes |
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What is the purpose of the inner ear? |
The inner ear structures convert sound into neural activity |
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The base of the cochlea is close to what membrane? |
oval window |
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This structure in the ear transforms waveforms from sound pressure into neural impulses. |
Cochlea |
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The Cochlea transforms wave forms from |
Sound pressure into neural impulses. |
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What does the oval window do? |
it is where the sound waves enter via the stapes (ossicles) |
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What membrane in the ear allows the fluids in the cochlea to move? |
The round window |
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The round window is a membrane that separates _____________ from _______________ |
The round window is a membrane that separates the scala tympani from the middle ear. |
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What membrane separates the scala tympani from the middle ear? |
The Round Window |
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Where do the fluids of the ear mix? |
at the cochlear apex |
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What is the fluid mix at the cochlear apex called? |
perilymph (APEX AND PERILYMPH BOTH HAVE AN E) |
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Perilymph |
The fluid mix at the cochlear apex. |
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Ampulla |
an enlarged region of each semicircular canal that contains the hair cells of the vestibular system. |
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An enlarged region of each semicircular canal that contains the hair cells of the vestibular system |
Ampulla |
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Central Deafness |
A hearing impairment that is related to lesions in auditory pathways or centers, including sites in the brainstem, thalamus, or cortex. Cortical deafness and word deafness are two examples of central deafness. |
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A hearing impairment that is related to lesions in the auditory pathways or centers, including sites in the brainstem, thalamus, or cortex. |
Central Deafness |
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Cortical Deafness and Word Deafness are two types of what |
Central Deafness |
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Two types of central deafness |
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Cilium |
A hairlike extension. The extensions in the hair cells of the cochlea are cilia. |
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One of the three types of small structures on the tongue, located in the back, that contain taste receptors. |
Circumvallate Papillae |
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Cochlear Implant |
An electromechanical device that detects sounds and selectively stimulates nerves in different regions of the cochlea via surgically implanted electrodes. |
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An electromechanical device that detects sounds and selectively stimulates nerves in different regions of the cochlea via surgically implanted electrodes. |
Cochlear Implant |
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Cochlear Nuclei |
Brainstem nuclei that receive input from auditory hair cells and send output to the superior olivary complex. |
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Brainstem nuclei that recieve input from auditory hair cells and send output to the superior olivary complex. |
Cochlear Nuclei |
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Where does the cochlear nuclei send it's output? |
to the superior olivary complex. |
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The superior olivary complex receives its input from |
the cochlear nuclei in the brain stem |
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Coincidence Detector |
A device that senses the co-occurence of two events. |
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A device that senses the co-occurence of two events. |
Coinicidence Detector |
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A hearing impairment that is associated with the pathology of the external-ear or middle-ear cavities. |
Conduction Deafness |
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Cortical Deafness |
A hearing impairment that is caused by a fault or defect in the cortex. |
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A hearing impairment that is caused by a fault or defect in the cortex. |
Cortical Deafness. |
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Cupula |
A small gelatinous column that forms part of the lateral-line system of aquatic animals and also occurs within the vestibular system of mammals. |
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A small gelatinous column that forms part of the lateral-line system of aquatic animals and also occurs within the vestibular system of mammals. |
Cupula |
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Deafness |
Hearing loss so proufound that speech perception is lost. |
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Hearing loss so profound that speech perception is lost. |
Deafness |
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Dendritic Knob |
A portion of olfactory receptor cells present in the olfactory epithelium. |
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A portion of olfactory receptor cells present in the olfactory epithelium. |
Dendritic Knob. |
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Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) |
A modified form of MRI in which the diffusion of water in a confined space is exploited to produce images of axonal fibertracts. |
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A modified form of MRI where the diffusion of water in a confined space is exploited to produce images of axonal fibertracts. |
Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) |
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Duplex Theory |
a theory that we localize sound by combining information about intensity differences and latency differences between the two ears. |
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A theory that we localize sound by combining info about intensity differences and latency differences between the two ears. |
Duplex Theory. |
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According to Duplex Theory how do we localize sound? |
By combining information about intensity and latency differences between two ears. |
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Ear Canal |
a tube leading from the pinna to the middle ear |
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the tube leading from the pinna to the middle ear |
Ear Canal |
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External Ear |
The part of the ear that we readily see (the pinna) and the canal that leads to the eardrum. |
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The part of the ear that we readily see and the canal that leads to the eardrum make up the |
external ear |
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Glomerulus |
a complex arbor of dendrites from a group of olfactory cells |
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A complex arbor of dendrites from a group of olfactory cells. |
Glomerulus |
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When sound waves displace hair cells it generates |
nerve impulses that travel to the brain. |
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Hearing loss |
decreased sensitivity to sound, in varying degrees. |
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Decreased sensitivity to sound in varying degrees |
Hearing Loss |
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Inferior Colliculi |
Paired grey matter structures of the dorsal midbrain that receive auditory information |
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Paired grey matter structures of the dorsal midbrain that receive auditory information |
Inferior Culliculi |
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The inner ear consists of |
The cochlea and the vestibular apparatus |
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The Cochlea and the Vestibular Apparatus make up the |
inner ear |
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Labeled Lines |
The concept that each nerve input to the brain reports only a particular type of information. |
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The concept that each nerve input to the brain reports only a particular types of information. |
Labeled Lines. |
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Lateral-Line System |
A sensory system, found in many kinds of fish and amphibians, that informs the animal of water motion in relation to the body surface. |
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A sensory system, found in many kinds of fish and amphibians, that informs the animal of water motion in relation to the body surface. |
Lateral-Line System |
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The Medial Geniculate Nucleus recieves input from ____________________ |
Inferior Colliculi |
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The Medial Geniculate Nucleus sends output to__________ |
The auditory Cortex |
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Receives input from the inferior colliculi and sends output to the auditory cortex |
the medial geniculate nucleus |
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The cavity between the tympanic membrane and the cochlea |
the middle ear |
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Minimal discriminable frequency difference |
The smallest change in frequency that can be detected reliably between two tones. |
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The smallest change in frequency that can be detected reliably between the two tones. |
Minimal Discriminable Frequency Difference |
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Mitral Cell |
A type of cell in the olfactory bulb that conducts smell information from the glomeruli to the rest of the brain. |
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A type of cell in the olfactory bulb that conducts smell information from the glomeruli to the rest of the brain. |
Mitral Cell |
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Motion Sickness |
The experience of nausea brought on by unnatural passive movement as in a car or a bus. |
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Olfactory Bulb |
An anterior projection of the brain that terminates in the upper nasal passages and, through small openings in the skull, provides receptors for smell. |
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An anterior projection of the brain that terminates in the upper nasal passages and through small openings in the skull, provides receptors for smell. |
Olfactory Bulb |
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Olfactory Epithelium |
A sheet of cells, including olfactory receptors, that lines the dorsal portion of the nasal cavities and adjacent regions, including the septum that separates the left and right nasal cavities. |
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A sheet of cells, including olfactory receptors, that line the dorsal portion of the nasal cavities and adjacent regions, including the septum that separates the left and right nasal cavities. |
Olfactory Epithelium |
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Olfactory Receptor Cell |
A type of neuron, found in the olfactory epithelium, which senses airborne odorants via specialized receptor proteins. |
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A type of neuron, found in the olfactory epithelium, which senses airborne odorants via specialized receptor proteins. |
Olfactory Receptor Cell |
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A structure in the inner ear that lies on the basilar membrane of the cochlea and contains the hair cells and terminations of the auditory nerve. |
Organ of Corti |
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Otoacousitc Emission |
A sound produced by the cochlea itself, either spontanously or in response to an environmental noise. |
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A sound produced by the cochlea itself, either spontaneously or in response to an environmental noise. |
Otoacoustic Emission |
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Otolith |
a small crystal on the gelatinous membrane in the vestibular system. |
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A small crystal on the gelatinous membrane in the vestibular system. |
Otolith |
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Ototoxic |
Toxic to the ears, especially to the middle or inner ear. |
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Means "toxic to the ears", especially to the middle or inner ear. |
Ototoxic |
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The opening from the middle ear to the inner ear. |
The oval window |
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A small bump that projects from the surface of the tongue and contains most of the taste receptor cells. |
Papilla |
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Pattern Coding |
Coding of info in sensory systems based on the temporal pattern of action potentials. |
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Coding of info in sensory systems based on the temporal pattern of action potentials. |
Pattern Coding |
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Pheromone |
A chemical signal that is released outside of the body of an animal and affects other members of the same species. |
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A chemical signal that is released outside the body of an animal and affects other members of the same species. |
Pheromone |
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The membrane separating the cochlear duct from the middle-ear cavity |
Round Window |
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Saccule |
A small, fluid-filled sac under the utricle in the vestibular system that responds to static positions of the head. |
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A small, fluid-filled sac under the utricle in the vestibular system that responds to static positions of the head. |
Saccule. |
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The central of 3 spiraling canals inside the cochlea, situated between the scala vestibuli and the scala tympani |
Scala Media |
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Semicircular Canal |
One of the tree fluid-filled tubes in the inner ear that are part of the vestibular system. Each of the tubes, which are at right angles to one another, detects angular acceleration. |
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Sensorineural Deafness |
A hearing impairment that orginates from cochlear or auditory nerve lesions. |
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A hearing impairment that originates from cochlear or auditory nerve lesions. |
Sensorineural Deafness |
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Sensory Conflict Theory |
A theory of motion sickness suggesting that the discrepancies between vestibular info and visual info simulate food poisoning and therefore trigger nausea. |
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A theory of motion sickness that suggests the dicrepancies between vestibular info and visual info simulate food poisoning and therefore trigger nausea. |
Sensory Conflict Theory |
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Spectral Filtering |
Alteration of the amplitude of some, but not all, frequencies in a sound. When performed by the irregular shapes of the external ear, this process is a source of info that assists in the localization of sounds. |
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Alteration of the amplitude of some, but not all, frequencies in a sound. When performed by the irregular shapes of the external ear, this process is a source of info that assists in the localization of sounds. |
Spectral Filtering |
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Brainstem nuclei that receive input from both the right and left cochlear nuclei, and provide the first binaural analysis of auditory information. |
Superior Olivary Nuclei |
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Tastant |
A substance that can be tasted |
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A substance that can be tasted is called a _____ |
tastant |
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A membrane that sits atop the organ of Corti in the cochlear duct. |
Tectorial Membrane |
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The encoding of sound frequency in terms of the number of action potentials per second produced by an auditory nerve |
temporal coding |
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The muscle attached to the malleus that modulates mechanical linkage to protect the delicate receptor cells of the inner ear from damaging sound. |
Tensor Tympani |
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Tinnitus |
A sensation of noises or ringing in the ears |
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A sensation of noises or ringing in the ears |
Tinnitus |
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Trace Amine-Associated Receptors (TAARs) |
A family of probably pheromone receptors produced by neurons in the main olfactory epithelium. TAARs are candidate pheromone receptors, despite being situated outside the VMO |
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A family of probable pheromone receptors produced by neurons in the main olfactory epithelium. They are candidate pheromone receptors, despite being situated outside the VMO. |
Trace Amine-Associated Receptors (TAARs) |
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These phermone receptors are produced by neurons in the main olfactory epithelium. |
Trace Amine-Associated Receptors (TAARs) |
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The partition between the external ear and the middle ear |
the tympanic membrane (eardrum) |
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Utricle |
A small, fluid-filled sac in the vestibular system above the saccule that responds to static positions of the head. |
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Where is the Utricle located? |
in the vestibular system above the saccule |
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Brainstem nuclei that receive info from the vestibular organs through cranial nerve VIII (The Vestibulocochlear Nerve) |
Vestibular Nuclei |
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Vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) |
The brainstem mechanism that maintains gaze on a visual object despite movments of the head. |
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The brainstem mechanism that maintains gaze on a visual object despite movements of the head. |
Vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) |
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VOR is also known as |
the Vestibulo-ocular reflex |
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Cranial Nerve VII that runs from the cochlea to the brainstem auditory nuclei |
Vestibulocochlear Nerve |
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Vomeronasal Organ |
A collection of specialized receptor cells, near to but separate from the olfactory epithelium, that detect pheromones and send electrical signals to the accessory olfactory bulb in the brain. |
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A collection of specialized receptor cells, near to, but separate from the olfactory epithilium, that detect pheromones and send electrical signals to the accessory olfactory bulb in the brain. |
Vomeronasal Organ |
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The VMO is also known as |
The Vomeronasal Organ |
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Vomeronasal System |
A specialized chemical detection system that detects pheromones and sends electrical signals to the accessory olfactory bulb in the brain. |
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A specialized chemical detection system that detects pheromones and sends electrical signals to the accessory olfactory bulb in the brain. |
Vomeronasal System |
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Word Deafness |
The specific inability to hear words, although other sounds can be detected. |
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The specific inability to hear words, although other sounds can be detected. |
Word Deafness |
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Accomodation |
The process of focusing by the cilliary muscles and the lens to form a sharp image on the retina. |
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The process of focusing by the cilliary muscles and the lens to form a sharp image on the retina. |
Accomodation |
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Adaptation |
In the context of sensory processing, the progressive loss of receptor sensitivity as stimulation is maintained. |
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In the context of sensory processing, the progressive loss of receptor sensitivity as stimulation is maintained. |
Adaptation |
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Amacrine Cells |
Specialized retinal cells that contact both the bipolar cells and the ganglion cells, and are especially significant in inhibitory interactions with the retina. |
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Specialized retinal cells that contact both the bipolar cells and the ganglion cells, and are especially significant in inhibitory interactions with the retina. |
Amacrine Cells |
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Amacrine cells contact these two types of cells |
Bipolar and ganglion cells |
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These cells are especially significant in inhibitory interactions with the retina. |
Amacrine cells |
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Amacrine Cells are significant in what type of interaction with the retina? |
Inhibitory Interactions (THE I IN amacrIne stands for INHIBITORY INTERACTIONS) |
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Amblyopia |
Reduced visual acuity that is not caused by optical or retinal impairments. |
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Reduced visual acuity that is not caused by optical or retinal impairments. |
Amblyopia |
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Bipolar Cells |
A class of interneurons of the retina that receive info from rods and cones and pass the info to retinal ganglion cells. |
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A class of interneurons of the retina that receive info from rods and cones and pass the info to retinal ganglion cells |
Bipolar Cells |
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Blind Spot |
The portion of the visual field from which light falls on the optic disc. Because there are no receptors in this region, light striking it cannot be seen. |
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The portion of the visual field from which light falls on the optic disc. Because there are no receptors in this region, light striking it cannot be seen. |
Blind Spot |
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Brightness |
One of three basic dimension of light perception; varies from dark to light. |
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Three basic dimensions of light perception |
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Brightness, Hue, and Saturation are |
the three basic dimensions of light perception. |
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One of three basic dimensions of light perception; varies from dark to light. |
Brightness |
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Ciliary Muscle |
One of the muscles that controls the shape of the lens inside the eye, focusing an image on the retina. |
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One of the muscles that controls the shape of the lens inside the eye, focusing an image on the retina. |
Ciliary Muscle |
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Complex Cortical Cell |
A cell in the visual cortex that responds best to a bar of a particular size and orientation anywhere within a particular area of the visual field. |
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A cell in the visual cortex that responds best to a bar of a particular size and orientation anywhere within a particular area of the visual field. |
Complex Cortical Cell |
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Cones |
A class of photoreceptor cells in the retina that are responsible for color vision. |
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A class of photoreceptor cells in the retina that are responsible for color vision. |
Cones |
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Cornea |
The transparent outer layer of the eye, whose curvature is fixed. It bends light rays and is primarily responsible for forming the image on the retina. |
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Extraocular Muscle |
One of the muscles attached to the eyeball that control its position and movement. |
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Extrastriate Cortex |
Visual Cortex outside of the primary visual (striate) cortex. |
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Visual cortex outside of the primary visual cortex. |
Extrastriate Cortex |
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Fovea |
The central portion of the retina, packed with the most photoreceptors and therefore the center of our gaze. |
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The central portion of the retinal, packed with the most photoreceptors and therefore the center of our gaze. |
Fovea |
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A class of cells in the retina whose axons form the optic nerve. |
Ganglion Cells |
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Horizontal Cells |
Specialized retinal cells that contact both the receptor cells and the bipolar cells. |
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Specialized retinal cells that contact both the receptor cells and the bipolar cells |
Horizontal Cells |
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Hue |
One of three basic properties of light perception; hue varies around the color circle through blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. |
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This basic property of light perception varies around the color circle through blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. |
Hue |
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Iris |
The circular structure of the eye that provides an opening to form the pupil |
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Lateral Geniculate Nucleus |
The part of the thalamus that receives info from the optic tract and sends it to visual areas in the occipital cortex. |
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The part of the thalamus that receives info from the optic tract and sends it to visual areas in the occipital cortex. |
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus |
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The Lateral Geniculate Nucleus is located in the |
Thalamus |
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Lateral Inhibition |
The phenomenon by which interconnected neurons inhibit their neighbors, producing the contrast at the edges of regions. |
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The phenomenon by with interconnected neurons inhibit their neighbors, producing the contrast at the edges of regions. |
Lateral Inhibition |
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Lens |
A structure in the eye that helps focus an image on the retina. The shape of the lens is controlled by the ciliary muscles inside the eye. |
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A structure in the eye that helps focus an image on the retina, its shape is controlled by the ciliary muscles inside the eye. |
Lens |
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Magnocellular |
Of or consisting of relatively large cells |
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Of or consisting of relatively large cells |
magnocellular |
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Mirror Neuron |
A neuron that is active both when a person makes a particular movement and when that individual sees another person make that same movement. |
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A neuron that is active both when a person makes a particular movement and when that individual sees another person make that same movement. |
Mirror Neuron |
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Myopia |
Nearsightedness; the inability to focus the retinal image on objects that are far away. |
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Nearsightedness; the inability to focus the retinal image on objects that are far away. |
Myopia |
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Occipital Lobes |
Large regions of cortex covering much of the posterior part of each cerebral hemisphere, and speciallized for visual processing. |
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Large regions of cortex covering much of the posterior part of each cerebral hemisphere, and specialized for visual processing. |
Occipital Lobes |
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A region of cortex in which one eye or the other provides a greater degree of synaptic input |
Occular Dominance Column |
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Ocular Dominance Slab |
A slab of visual cortex, about 0.5 mm wide, in which the neurons of all layers respond preferentially to stimulation of one eye. |
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A slab of visual cortex, about 0.5 mm wide, in which the neurons of all laters respond preferentially to stimulation of one eye. |
Ocular Dominance Slab |
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Off-Center Bipolar Cell |
A retinal bipolar cell that is inhibited by light in the center of its receptive field. |
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A retinal bipolar cell that is inhibited by light in the center of its receptive field. |
Off-Center Bipolar Cell |
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Off-Center Ganglion Cell |
A retinal ganglion cell that is activated when light is presented to the periphery, rather than the center, of the cells receptive field. |
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A retinal ganglion cell that is activated when light is presented to the periphery, rather than the center, of the cell's receptive field. |
Off-Center Ganglion Cell |
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Off-Center/On-Surround |
Referring to a cocentric receptive field in which the center inhibits the cell of interest while the surround excites it. |
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Referring to a cocentric receptive field in which the center inhibits the cell of interest while the surround excites it. |
Off-Center/On-Surround |
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On-Center Bipolar Cell |
A retinal bipolar cell that is excited by light in the center of its receptive field. |
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A retinal bipolar cell that is excited by light in the center of its receptive field. |
On-Center Bipolar Cell |
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On-Center Ganglion Cell |
A retinal Ganglion cell that is activated when light is presented to the center, rather than the periphery, of the cell's receptive field. |
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On-Center/Off-Surround |
Referring to a cocentric receptive field in which the center excites the cell of interest while the surround inhibits it. |
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A retinal ganglion cell that is activated when light is presented to the center, rather than the periphery, of the cell's receptive field. |
On-Center Ganglion Cell |
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Referring to a cocentric receptive field in which the center excites the cell of interest while the surround inhibits it. |
On-Center/Off-Surround |
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The theory that color vision depends on systems that produce opposite responses to light of different wave lengths. |
Opponent-Process Hypothesis |
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Opsin |
One of the two components of photopigments in the retina. The other component is retinal. |
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What are the two components of photopigments in the retina? |
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Optic Ataxia |
A spatial disortientation in which the patient is unable to accurately reach for objects using visual guidance. |
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A spatial disorientation in which the patient is unable to accurately reach for objects using visual guidance. |
Optic Ataxia |
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Optic Chiasm |
The point at which the two optic nerves meets. |
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The point at which the two optic nerves meet. |
Optic Chiasm |
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Optic Disc |
The region of the retina devoid of receptor cells because ganglion cell axons and blood vessels exit the eyeball there. |
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The region of the retina devoid of receptor cells because ganglion cell axons and blood vessels exit the eyeball there. |
Optic Disc |
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Optic Nerve |
Cranial Nerve II, the collection of ganglion cell axons that extend from the retina to the optic chiasm. |
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Cranial Nerve II, the collection of ganglion cell axons that extend from the retina to the optic chiasm. |
Optic Nerve |
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The optic nerve is also known as |
Cranial Nerve II (WE HAVE 2 EYES FOR CRANIAL NERVE 2) |
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Cranial Nerve II is also known as |
the optic nerve |
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Optic Radiation |
Axons from the lateral geniculate nucleus that terminate in the primary visual areas of the occipital cortex. |
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Axons from the lateral geniculate nucleus that terminate in the primary visual areas of the occipital cortex. |
Optic Radiation |
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Optic Tract |
The axons of retinal ganglion cells after they have passed to the optic chiasm; most terminate in the lateral geniculate nucleus |
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The axons of retinal ganglion cells after they have passed to the optic chiasm; most terminate in the lateral geniculate nucleus. |
Optic Tract |
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Of or consisting of relatively small cells |
Parvocellular |
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Photon |
A quantum of light energy |
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A quantum of light energy is called a |
photon |
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Photopic System |
A system in the retina that operates at high levels of light, shows sensitivity to color, and involves the cones. |
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A system in the retinal that operates at high levels of light, shows sensitivity to color, and involves the cones. |
Photopic System |
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Photoreceptor Adaptation |
The tendency of rods and cones to adjust their light sensitivity to match ambient levels of illumination. |
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The tendency of rods and cones to adjust their light sensitivity to match ambient levels of illumination |
Photoreceptor Adaptation. |
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Neural Cells in the retina that respond to light |
photoreceptors |
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Where are photoreceptors located? |
in the retina |
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Primary Visual Cortex |
Also called the striate cortex, V1, or Area 17. The region of occipital cortex where most visual info first arrives. |
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The region of occipital cortex where most visual info first arrives. |
Primary visual cortex |
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The Primary Visual Cortex is also known as these three names |
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The aperture, formed by the iris, that allows light to enter the eye |
Pupil |
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Range Fractionation |
A hypothesis of stimulus intensity perception stating that a wide range of intensity values can be encoded by a group of cells, each of which is a specialist for a particular range of stimulus intensities. |
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A hypothesis of stimulus intensity perception stating that a wide range of intensity values can be encoded by a group of cells, each of which is a specialist for a particular range of stimulus intensities. |
Range Fractionation |
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Receptive Field |
The stimulus region and features that affect the activity of a cell in a sensory system. |
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The stimulus region and features that affect the activity of a cell in a sensory system. |
Receptive Field |
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Refraction |
The bending of light rays by a change in the density of a medium, such as the cornea and the lens of the eyes. |
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Retina |
The receptive surface inside the eye that contains photoreceptors and other neurons |
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The receptive surface inside the eye that contains the photoreceptors and other neurons |
Retina |
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Retinal |
One of the components of photopigments in the retina. The other one is opsin. |
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Rhodopsin |
The photopigment in rods that responds to light |
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The photopigment in rods that respond to light |
Rhodopsin |
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Rods |
A class of light-sensitive receptor cells (photoreceptors) in the retina that are most active at low levels of light. |
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A class of light-sensitive receptor cells (photoreceptors) in the retina that are most active at low levels of light |
Rods |
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Saturated |
Referring to the condition in which a maximal numbers of receptors of one type have been bound by molecules of a drug; additional doses of a drug cannot produce additional binding. |
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Scotoma |
A region of blindness caused by injury to the visual pathway or brain. |
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A region of blindness caused by injury to the visual pathway or brain. |
Scotoma |
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A system in the retina that operates at low levels of light and involves the rods. |
Scotopic System |
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Simple Cortical Cell |
Also called bar detector or edge detector. A cell in the visual cortex that responds best to an edge or a bar that has a particular width, as well as a particular orientation and location in the visual field. |
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A cell in the visual cortex that responds best to an edge or bar that has a particular width, as well as a particular orientation and location in the visual field. |
Simple Cortical Cell |
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Spatial-Frequency Filter Model |
A model of pattern analysis that emphasizes Fourier analysis of visual stimuli |
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A model of pattern analysis that emphasizes Fourier Analysis of visual stimuli |
Spatial-Frequency Filter Model |
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Spectrally Opponent Cell |
A visual receptor cell that has opposite firing responses to different regions of the spectrum. |
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A visual receptor cell that has oppostite firing responses to different regions of the spectrum. |
Spectrally Opponent Cells |
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A hypothesis of color perception stating that there are three types of cones, each excited by a different region of the spectrum and each having a separate pathway to the brain. |
Trichromatic Hypothesis |
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Visual Acuity |
Sharpness of vision |
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Visual Field |
The whole area that you can see without moving your head or eyes |
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The whole area that you can see without moving your head or eyes. |
Visual Field |
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Wavelength |
The length between two peaks in a repeated stimulus such as a wave, light, or sound. |
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The length between two peaks in a repeated stimulus such as a wave, light, or sound. |
Wavelength |
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The three main structures in the organ of Corti are: |
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This structure in the organ of Corti vibrates in response to sound. |
Basilar Membrane |
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What happens when there is inward movement of the oval window? |
Inward movement of the oval window displaces inner ear fluids causing the round window to bulge and deform the cochlear partition. |
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At the ____________________ the traveling sound wave is translated into a shearing motion. |
Organ of Corti |
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the ______________ pushes hair cells against the tectorial membrane as perilymphatic pressure waves pass. |
Basilar Membrane |
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The Basilar Membrane pushes ______ against the tectorial membrane as perilymphatic pressure waves pass. |
Hair cells |
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The Basilar membrane pushes hair cells against the _____________ as perilymphatic pressure waves pass. |
Tectorial Membrane |
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The basilar membrane pushes hair cells against the tectorial membrane as ________________ |
perilymphatic pressure waves pass. |
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TRUE OR FALSE: The shearing motion that bends the stereocilia on the hair cells in the organ or Corti can cause hyperpolarization or depolarization. |
True, it can cause EITHER hyperpolarization or depolarization |
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Displacement of hair cells in the upward phase = |
depolarization |
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Displacement of hair cells in the downward phase = |
hyperpolarization |
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TRUE OR FALSE: The organ of Corti operates on graded receptor potential. |
True |
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Which part of the basilar membrane vibrates in response to high frequency sounds? |
The narrow base of the basilar membrane vibrates in response to high frequency sounds. |
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Which part of the basilar membrane vibrates in response to low frequency sounds? |
Low frequency sounds displace the wider apex of the basilar membrane. |
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Do Afferent nerve cells carry messages to or from the brain? |
Afferent nerve cells carry messages TO the brain. The 'A' in Afferent means ARRIVE. |
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Do efferent nerve cells carry messages to or from the brain? |
Efferent nerve cells carry messages FROM the brain, the 'E' in efferant means EXIT. |
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The afferent fibers of IHCs are sent where? |
To the cochlear nucleus of the brainstem. |
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The efferent nerve fibers of IHCs come from where? |
The lateral superior olivary nucleus |
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The afferent fibers of the tectorial membrane lead to where? |
to the cochlear nucleus |
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The efferent fibers of the techtorial membrane come from where? |
From the medial superior olivary nucleus. |
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flask-shaped epithelial cells that protrude in the scala media are |
hair cells |
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_____________ sits on top of and overlaps the basilar membrane |
Tectorial membrane |
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The tectorial membrane sits on top of and overlaps the |
basilar membrane |
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Hair cells transform vibrational energy into |
electrical signals |
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Hair cells transform ______________ energy into electrical signals |
vibrational |
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What constitutes 95% of the auditory nerve? |
One row of inner hair cells (3,500) |
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What do the three rows of Outer Hair Cells do? |
feed back energy to amplify the traveling wave by up to 65 dB. |
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These feed back energy to amplify the traveling sound wave by up to 65 dB. |
The 12,000 (three rows) of outer hair cells |
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How many stereocilia are there per hair cell? |
30 - 100+ |
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How are the 30 - 100+ stereocilia arranged on each hair cell? |
The 30 - 100+ stereocilia per hair cell are bilaterally symmetrical and arranged by height. |
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What transforms the shearing motion of hair cell bundles into graded receptor potentials? |
the tip links that connect 2 adjacent stereocilia |
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The flux of K+ molecules is used to |
both depolarize and hyperpolarize the hair cell. |
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What is used to depolarize and hyperpolarize the hair cell? |
The flux of K+ molecules. |
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The apical end of the hair cell protrudes into the scala media and is high in _______ and low in ______________ due to pumps. |
The apical end of the hair cell protrudes into the scala media and is high in K+ and low in Na+ in endolymph due to pumps. |
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This end of the hair cell is high in K+ and low in Na+ in its endolymph due to pumps. |
The apical end |
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The basal end of the hair cell is low in __(chemical)__ and high in_(chemical)__ in perilymph from scala tympani. |
The basal end is low in K+ and high in Na+ in perilymph from the scala tympani. |
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The ________ end of the hair cell is low in K+ and high in Na+ in its perilymph from the scala tympani. |
Basal end |
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A hair cell generates a sinusoidal receptor potential to a sinusoidal stimulus to |
preserve temporal information |
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When the shear pulls on the tip links and open the K+ channels this leads to |
depolarization |
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When the hair cells return to their pre-shear position what happens to the cells? |
Hyperpolarization |
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What is the resting potential of a hair cell membrane? |
-45 to -60 mV |
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Depolarization opens __________ at the synaptic basal pole of the cell. |
Ca++ channels |
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What triggers vesicle exocytosis and glutamate release in a hair cell? |
When depolarization opens voltage dependent Ca++ channels at the synaptic basal pole of the cell. |
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Graphs of auditory nerve fiber responses -- show that additional sharpening takes place. |
Tuning Curve |
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This nerve contains auditory fibers from the cochlea; each fiber divides into two branches, going to cells in the ventral and dorsal cochlear nuclei. |
Vestibulocochlear Nerve (Cranial Nerve VII) |
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True or False: The Superior Olivary Nucleus receives bilateral input. |
True |
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In this part of the midbrain auditory neurons have a preferred elevation and horizontal direction as well as respond to complex patterns. |
Inferior Colliculus |
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In this part of the brain auditory parallel pathways converge and mediate detection of specific spectral and temporal combinations of sound. |
Auditory thalamus/medial geniculate complex |
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Auditory Thalamus/Medial Geniculate Complex |
In this part of the brain auditory parallel pathways converge and mediate detection of specific spectral and temporal combinations of sound. |
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This part of the the temporal cortex maintains a topographical map of the cochlea; conscious perception of sound (including speech recognition.) |
Auditory cortex in the temporal cortex. |
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These neurons act as coincidence detectors in the auditory system. |
MSO Neurons (Medial Superior Olive) |
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The Medial Superior Olive (MSO) deals with what aspect of audition? |
Timing = it receives stimulus from both ears and interprets differences in TIMING of bilateral inputs (determined by the length of each axon connection) and is used to locate sound source. |
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The Lateral Superior Olive deals with what aspect of audition? |
Intensity = abouve 2kHz the head acts as an obstacle for short, high-frequency waves, resulting in lower intensity signals to the distant ear. Differences in INTENSITY are used by lateral superior olive and the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body to locate sound. Each LSO receives inhibitory input from the other LSO via MNTB interneurons. |
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What are the two kinds of latency differences? |
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Onset Disparity |
Difference in hearing at the beginning and end of a sound |
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the difference in hearing at the beginning and end of a sound. |
Onset Disparity |
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Ongoing Phase Disparity |
Continuous difference between ears in arrival of parts of a sound wave. |
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Continuous difference between ears in arrival of parts of a sound wave. |
Ongoing Phase Disparity |
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The two divisions of the superior olivary nucleus are: |
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The Lateral Superior Olive and the Medial Superior Olive are parts of the |
Superior Olivary Nucleus |
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The Lateral Superior Olive processes |
intensity differences |
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The Medial Superior Olive processes |
The Medial Superior Olive processes latency differences but encodes sound by relative activity of the left and right sides. |
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_________ Processes latency differences, but encodes sound by relative activity of the left and right sides. |
The Medial Superior Olive |
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The External ear structure selectively reinforces some frequencies called |
Spectral filtering |
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Azimuth |
Horizontal location |
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What localizes a sound in the azimuth? |
Binaural intensity and latency cues |
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What is the azimuth? |
Horizontal location |
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Spectral cues provide critical info about ____ |
elevation (vertical location) |
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______ provide critical information about elevation |
Spectral cues |
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Vertical Location = |
Elevation (eleVation is Vertical Location) |
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Elevation = |
Vertical Location |
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The auditory cortex analyzes complex sounds in these two main streams: |
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Dorsal Stream of the auditory cortex |
The Dorsal Stream is located in the Parietal Lobe and is involved in spatial location of sound. |
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This part of the auditory cortex is located in the Parietal Lobe and is involved in the spatial location of sound. |
The Dorsal Stream of the Auditory Cortex (DorSAL = parieTAL) (You locate a shark by the dorsal fin and you locate a sound by the dorsal stream) |
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This part of the auditory cortext is located in the temporal lobe and analyzes the components of sound. |
The ventral stream of the auditory cortex. |
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Where is the ventral stream of the auditory cortex located? |
In the temporal lobe |
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Where is the Dorsal stream of the auditory cortex located? |
In the parietal lobe |
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What it the dorsal stream of the auditory cortex involved in? |
The dorsal stream of the auditory cortex is located in the parietal lobe and is involved in spatial location of sound. |
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This part of the auditory cortex is located in the parietal lobe and is involved in the spatial location of sound. |
Dorsal Stream of the Auditory Cortex |
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This part of the auditory cortex is larger in musicians. |
Heschl's Gyrus |
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Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) using MRI, shows fewer connections between the frontal cortex and temporal lobe in people who are |
Tone Deaf |
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Decreased sensitivity to sound, ranging from moderate to severe. |
Hearing Loss |
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Is a loss of hearing so profound that speech cannot be perceived even with the use of hearing aids. |
Deafness |
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Disorders of the outer or middle ear that prevent sounds from reaching the cochlea |
Conduction Deafness |
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Originates from cochlear or auditory nerve lesions |
Sensorineural Deafness |
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Three main causes of deafness: |
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These ear damaging effects may be due to drugs, noise pollution, or loud sounds. |
Ototoxic Effects |
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Damage to hair cells can result in __________ a sensation of noises or ringing in the ears |
Tinnitus |
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Tinnitus is a result of |
Damage to hair cells |
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Hearing Loss is a major disorder of the _____ system. |
Nervous system |
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Hearing loss caused by brain lesions (such as stroke) with complex results. |
Central Deafness |
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The inability to recognize spoken words |
Word Deafness |
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Difficulty recognizing verbal and non-verbal auditory stimuli. |
Cortical Deafness |
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Cochlear Implants are used to treat deafness due to |
Hair Cell Loss |
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_____________ are used to treat deafness due to hair cell loss |
Cochlear Implants |
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Broca's Aphasia is also known as |
Expressive Aphasia |
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Expressive Aphasia is also known as |
Broca's Aphasia |
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Signs of Broca's (Expressive) Aphasia |
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Anomia, inarticulate, non-fluency, and agrammatic are indicative of what type of aphasia? |
Broca's Expressive Aphasia |
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Broca's patients had damage to what part of the brain |
Frontal damage to Broca's area |
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Wernicke's patients had damage to what part of the brain? |
Posterior Superior Temporal Gyrus Damage (Wernicke's Area) |
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These patients were fluent and articulate, but meaningless "Word Salad". Unable to understand language in written or spoken forms. |
Wernicke's (Receptive) Aphasia. |
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Wernicke's Aphasia is also knows as |
Receptive Aphasia |
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Receptive Aphasia is also known as |
Wernicke's Aphasia |
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5 Major Forms of Language Deficits: |
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Area of damage for the form of language deficit known as Alexia |
Angular Gyrus |
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Damage to to the angular gyrus can result in this form of language defecit. |
Alexia |
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Inability to read due to imparied visual input to language centers. |
Alexia |
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Alexia |
Inability to read due to impaired visual input to language centers. |
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Dyslexia |
Impaired reading due to imbalanced visual inputs |
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Form of language deficit marked by impaired reading due to imbalanced visual inputs. |
Dyslexia |
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The form of language deficit known as dyslexia involves this part of the brain |
Planum temporale equal or larger on right side |
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If the Planum temporale is equal or larger on the right side this form of language deficit may occur |
Dyslexia |
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Agraphia |
Major form of language deficit that is marked by the inability to write due to an impaired language center outputs to the motor systems. |
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Major form of language deficit that is marked by the inability to write due to an impaired language center output to the motor system. |
Agraphia |
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The major form of language deficit known as agraphia involves what part of the brain? |
Angular Gyrus (AGraphia - Angular Gyrus) |
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The major form of language deficit that involves the angular gyrus is known as |
agraphia |
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This part of the PNS is part of the Vestibular System |
The inner ear structures |
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This part of the CNS is part of the Vestibular System |
Vestibular nuclei afferents to motor neurons, brainstem, and cerebellum. |
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Characteristics of the Vestibular Labyrinth |
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This part of the vestibular system transduces motion from the effects of gravity and linear and rotational accelerations of the head. |
The Vestibular Labyrinth |
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This part of the vestibular system is an elaborate set of interconnected chambers that is continuous with the cochlea and also uses hair cells. |
Vestibular Labyrinth |
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Vestibular Labyrinth |
This part of the vestibuluar system is an elaborate set of interconnected chambers that is continuous with the cochlea and also uses hair cells. |
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3 Axes of Angular Acceleration |
Movements along the
that convert the effects of gravity (linear and rotational accelerations of the head) into neural impulses. |
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What are the two Otolith Organs? |
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The Utricle and Saccule are |
the two Otolith Organs |
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These organs respond to linear accelerations of the head and static head position relative to the ground (gravity) and contain vestibular hair cells. |
Otolith Organs
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What do the two otolith organs, the utricle and saccule do? |
They respond to the linear accelerations of the head and static head position relative to the ground (gravity) and contain vestibular hair cells. |
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The 3 semicircular canals are specialized to |
rotational accelerations (head turning) |
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These canals are specialized to rotational accelerations (head turning) |
the 3 semicircular canals |
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The apical membranous sac is filled with what kind of fluid? |
Endolymph |
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This is filled with endolymph |
the apical membranous sac |
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The basal membranous sac is filled with what fluid? |
Perilymph |
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Where do you find perilymph? |
In the basal membranous sac of the vestibular labyrinth |
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The sacculus is oriented to the |
verticle |
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the utricle is oriented to the |
horizontal
(UTRICLE AND HORIZONTAL BOTH HAVE AN "I") |
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Directional Polarization |
When hair cell bundles are selective for certain directions. |
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When hair cell bundles are selective for certain directions it's called |
directional polarization |
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Vestibular Hair Cells are separated by |
striola |
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in the striola that separate the vestibular hair cells one side is _______ |
excited and the other side is inhibited. |
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_______ Contains a sensory epithilum of hair cells called macula |
Otolithic Membrane |
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Macula |
a sensory epithilum of hair cells |
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Calcium carbonate crystals |
otoconia |
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Where are otoconia located? |
Embedded in the hair cells of the otolithic membrane. |
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3 Semicircular canals filled with endolymph encode ______ |
rotations of the head |
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________ houses the sensory epithelium (hair cells) called the crista |
Ampulla |
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Ampulla houses the |
sensory epithelium (hair cells) called crista. |
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What are Crista? |
Sensory epithelium (hair cells) housed within the ampulla. |
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In the vestibular system hair cells extend out of the crista into |
gelatinous cupula |
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These cells extend out of the crista into the gelatinous cupula in the vestibular system. |
hair cells |
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When you turn your head to the left, what happens to the semicircular canals in the vestibular system? |
Movement of the endolymph bends the cupula in the left canal in the excitatory direction, exciting the afferent fibers on this side. In the RIGHT canal the hair cells are hyperpolarized and afferent firing there decreases. |
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Central projections from vestibular nuclei are involved in 2 major classes of reflexes: |
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The visual system extends from the _____ to the _____. |
The visual system extends from the eye to the brain. |
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Neurons at different levels of the visual system have very different _________ |
Receptive Fields |
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Area V1 is organized in |
columns |
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Color vision depends on special |
channels from the retinal cones through the cortical area V4. |
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Perception of visual motion is analyzed by a special system that includes |
Cortical Area V5 |
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The many cortical visual areas are organized into |
two major streams:
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The dorsal stream of the cortical visual areas deals with |
vision for movement and location |
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This part of the cortical visual area deals with vision for movement and location |
The dorsal stream |
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The ventral stream of the cortical visual areas deals with |
vision for recognition of objects and faces. |
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This part of the cortical visual areas deals with vision for recognition of objects and faces. |
the ventral stream |
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Neural signals in the retina converge on |
ganglion cells. Their axons form the optic nerve and terminate in multiple brain regions. |
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These two parts of the eye focus light |
Cornea and lens |
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This part of the eye bends light (Refraction) and forms the image |
Cornea |
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This part of the eye adjust the focus by changing the shape of the lens. |
Cilliary Muscles |
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How do the ciliary muscles adjust the focus of the eye? |
By changing the shape of the lens. |
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The process of focusing the lens is called |
accomodation |
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the pupil is an opening in the |
iris |
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the opening in the iris is called the |
pupil |
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light entering the eye is controlled by the |
pupil, an opening in the iris |
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Eye movement is controlled by |
extraocular muscles |
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extraocular muscles control |
eye movement. |
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Sharpness of vision -- falls off towards the periphery of the visual field. |
Visual Acuity |
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Visual acuity is best where and why? |
Visual acuity is best in the fovea because it has a high density of cones. |
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Where blood vessels enter and leave the eye |
optic disc |
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This is due to lack of photoreceptors in the optic disc |
Blind Spot |
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Rod cells are absent from this part of the eye |
Fovea |
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Rod cells are more numerous in the _____ |
periphery and are more sensitive to dim light than cones are. |
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Rod input converges on |
ganglion cells in the scotopic system. |
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Visual processing begins in the |
retina |
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Rods and cones are types of |
photoreceptor cells |
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These cells receive input from photoreceptors and synapse on ganglion cells, whose axons form the optic nerve. |
Bipolar cells |
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the scototopic system is also known as |
Rods |
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This visual system works in dim light |
scototopic (rods) |
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this visual system requires more light and allows for color vision. |
Phototopic system (cones) |
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Horizontal cells in the retina contact |
photoreceptors and bipolar cells |
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these cells contact both bipolar and gangion cells in the visual system. |
amacrine cells |
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these cells contact both photoreceptors and bipolar cells in the visual system |
Horizontal cells |
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All cell types except ____ generate graded potentials in the visual system. |
ganglion cells, they generate action potentials. |
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ganglion cells generate what kind of potentials in the visual system?
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action potentials. |
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The visual system responds to a band of electromagnetic radiation measured in |
quanta |
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each quantum has a |
wavelength |
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Quanta of light energy with visible wavelengthy are called |
photons |
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In rods, quanta of light are captured by the photopigment |
rhodopsin |
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Photopigments consist of these two parts: |
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What happens to retinal and opsin when rhodopsin is activated by light |
when light activates rhodopsin, retinal dissociates, and the opsin is activated. |
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The visual system responds to changes in |
light |
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brightness is created by the _____ system |
Brightness is created by the visual system. |
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A process where interconnected neurons inhibit their neighbors and produce contrast. |
Lateral Inhibition |
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How is contrast produced in the visual system? |
Via lateral inhibition. |
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This membrane in the ear is tapered, being about 5 times wider at the apex than the base. |
Basilar Membrane |
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How is the basilar membrane shaped? |
The Basilar Membrane is tapered and is about 5 times wider at the apex than the base. |
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The principle components of the ear that convert sound into neural activity are collectively known as the |
Organ of Corti |
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The oval window is adjacent to which part of the cochlear spiral? |
The oval window is adjacent to the base of the coclear spiral. |
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The Cochlea is wider at the _____ and narrows at the ______ |
The cochlea is wider at the base and narrows at the apex, the opposite of the basilar membrane. |
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What flexible membrane separates the scala tympani from the scala media? |
The Basilar Membrane |
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3 Main structures in the Organ of Corti |
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True or False: The stereocilia are all the same height? |
False, the heights of the stereocilia increase progressively across the hair cell, so the tops form a slope. |
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In what part of the brain is the cochlear nucleus located? |
in the brain stem? |
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Efferent nerve fibers in the IHC (Inner Hair Cells) communicate with the |
Efferent nerve fibers from the Inner Hair Cells carry information from the Lateral Superior Olivary Nucleus |
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Afferent nerve fibers in the Outer Hair Cells communicate with the |
Afferent nerve fibers in the Outer Hair Cells communicate with cochlear nucleus in the brainstem. |
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Efferent nerve fibers in the Outer Hair Cells communicate with the |
Efferent nerve fibers in the Outer Hair Cells carry information from the medial superior olivary nucleus. |
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IHC and OHC afferents both communicate with the |
IHC and OHC afferents both communicate with the cochlear nucleus in the brainstem. |
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IHC and OHC efferent nerve fibers both communicate with |
a superior olivary nucleus. The IHC is the lateral superior olivary nucleus and the OHCs are the medial superior olivary nucleus. |
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When K+ and Ca++ rush into the hair cell it causes |
rapid depolarization of the hair cells. |
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Depolarization of the hair cell leads to a rapid influx of Ca++ at the *base* of the IHC which causes the synaptic vesicles there to release _______ transmitter |
glutamate |
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What is the purpose of OHCs? |
they fine tune the cochlea to help discriminate frequencies by changing the length of the OHCs when the membrane potential changes. |
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2-Deoxyglucosee (2-DG) is used to map |
auditory brain regions |
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physical property of sound |
frequency |
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subjective sensory experience of sound |
pitch |
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The cranial nerve that transmits cochlear impulses to the auditory cortices is known as the |
vestibulocochlear nerve (CRANIAL NERVE 8) |
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In the auditory system efflux of K+ leads to |
hyperpolarization |
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In the auditory system influx of K+ leads to |
depolarization |
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Path taken by auditory information is |
Cochlea--> Superior Olivary --> Inferior Colliculli __> MGN --> Auditory Cortex |
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What are the binaural cues used to locate sound sources? |
Intensity and Latency differences |
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Conductive hearing loss is due to |
middle ear damage |
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middle ear damage leads to |
conductive hearing loss |
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sensorineural hearing loss is due to |
inner hair cell damage |
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Inner hair cell damage can caused this kind of hearing loss |
sensorineural hearing loss |
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The ventral stream communicates (what or where) a sound is heard |
The ventral stream communicates WHAT type of sound is heard |
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the doral stream communiicates (what or where) a sound is heard |
The dorsal stream communicates where a sound is heard. |
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What is the purpose of the vental auditory streeam? |
To communicate WHAT KIND of sound is heard (AN AC VENT CAN SEND 2 KINDS OF AIR, HOT/COLD) |
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what is the purpose of the dorsal auditory stream? |
To communicate WHERE a sound is heard (A SHARK'S DORSAL FIN TELLS US WHERE IT IS) |
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The primary sound localization nucleus in the human brain is the |
superior olivary nucleus |
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the two main divisions of the superior olivary nucleus are: |
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what is the purpose of the dorsal auditory stream? |
To communicate WHERE a sound is heard (A SHARK'S DORSAL FIN TELLS US WHERE IT IS) |
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In the vestibular system nodding up and down is a movement on which axis? |
Nodding up and down corresponds with the y-axis or "pitch" |
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Pitch |
y-axis -- nodding up and down |
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In the vestibular system shaking your head from side to side is a movement on which axis? |
z-axis -- Shaking your head from side to side |
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In the vestibular system tilting you head from side to side is a movement on which axis? |
x-axis -- tilting your head from side to side. |
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yaw is which axis? |
z-axis |
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roll is which axis? |
x-axis (You roll a ball along the X) |
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What are the three semicircular canals called? |
(OUR P.A.L. THE CANAL) |
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The lateral semi-circular canal is also known as the |
horizontal canal |
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The horizontal semicircular canal is also known as the |
lateral canal |
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The ends of the u3 semicircular canals are attached to the |
utricle |
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Each semicircular canal terminates near the utricle in an enlarged region called the |
ampulla |
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The ampullae contain |
the hair cells that signal movement in the corresponding plane. |
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In the vestibular system these contain the hair cells that signal movemnt in the corresponding plane. |
The Ampullae (Ampulla) |
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In the Vestibular System the Stereocilia of the hair cells are embedded in a gelatinous mass called the |
cupula |
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The Utricle and Saccule provide additional vestibular information regarding |
Straight line accelleration and deceleration. |
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The ossicles in the ear probably evolved from the |
jaw |
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the auditory system evollved from the |
vestibular system |
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The vestibular system evolved from the _____ system found in fish and amphibians |
lateral-line system |
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Nerve fibers from vestibular receptors enter the lower levels of the brainstem and synapse in the |
vestibular nuclei |
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Nerve fibers from the vestibular receptors enter the lower levels of the brainstem and synapse in the vestibular nuclei, but SOME fibers bypass the vestibular nuclei and go directly to |
the cerebellum where they contribute to motor function |
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Outputs of the vestibular nuclei go to the |
(THE VESTIBULAR NUCLEI OUTPUTS ARE 4 MOTHER) |
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Vestibulo-ocular reflex is controlled by this system |
the vestibular system |
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How do we know that the vestibulao-ocular reflex (VOR) operates on vestibular inputs and not just visual ones? |
Because VOR also works when the eyes are closed. |
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A sheet of cells that lines the dorsal portion of the nasal cavities and adjacent regions (including the septum that separates the left and right nasal cavities) is called |
olfactory epithelium |
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Three types of cells in the olfactory epithelium |
CELLS IN THE OLFACTORY EPITHELIUM MAKE US S.O.B. |
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We have about how many olfactory receptor cells/ |
10 million |
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In the olfactory system numerous cilia emerge from the |
dendritic knob. |
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In the olfactory system these cells are bipolar and a fine unmyelinated axon (among the smallest in the nervous system) runs to the olfactory bulb. |
Bipolar olfactory receptor cells |
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TRUE OR FALSE: OLFACTORY RECEPTOR NEURONS CANNOT BE REPLACED. |
FALSE, olfactory neurons can be replaced. |
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The direction of air flow in the nose is determined by complex curved surfaces called |
turbinates (that form the nasal cavity) |
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In the olfactory system airborne molecules initially encounter |
the fluids of the mucosal layer, which contain binding proteins that transport odorants to the receptor surfaces. |
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The name of the specific protein that must be used by all olfactory receptors |
G_olf |
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In the olfactory system interactions of odorants with receptors trigger the synthesis of second messengers, such as |
cAMP (cyclic AMP) |
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Which system uses cAMP and Golf? |
Olfactory |
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The pathway of odorants through the olfactory system |
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If the olfactory epithelium is damaged it |
can be regenerated and will properly reconnect to the olfactory bulb. |
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How is the olfactory bulb organized? |
into many spherical neural circuts (glomerui) where olfactory neurons synapse on the mitral cells in the olfactory bulb. |
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Where to olfactory neurons synapse? |
on the dendrites of mitral cells in the olfactory bulb. |
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How are glomeruli organized within the olfactory bulb? |
In zones according to the four receptor protein sub-families. |
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The olfactory cortex also contains neurons that respond selectively to MIXTURES of receptor-specific odorants, but NOT to |
the individual odorants. |
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In humans FMRI studies show that the ______________ is activated during sniffing, whether or not an odor is present because the airflow provides somatosensory stimulation. |
prepryiform cortex |
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Parts of the brain activated when you sniff the air AND A ODORANT IS PRESENT |
Primary Olfactory (Prepyriform Cortex) and Secondary Olfactory (Orbitofrontal Cortex) |
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Pathway of light through the eye. |
C.A.P. Lens V.C.R. |
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A bending of light due to a change in the density of a medium |
refraction |
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focus in the eye is adjusted by |
changes in the SHAPE of the lens as controlled by CILLIARY MUSCLES |
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Cilliary muscles control |
the shape of the eye (and thus the focus) |
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Amount of light that enters the eye is controlled by |
the size of the pupil in the iris |
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dilation of pupils is controlled by which nervous system? |
sympathetic autonomic nervous system
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Constriction of the pupils is controlled by which nervous system |
the parasympathetic |
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movement of the eye is controlled by |
extraocular muscles |
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how many pairs of extraocular muscles are there? |
3 pairs |
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The first stages of visual info processing occur in the |
retina |
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Photoreceptors (rods and cones) release |
neurotransmitters to control the activity of the bipolar cells that synapse with them. |
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In the eye these cells make contacts among the receptor cells and bipolar cells |
horizontal cells (BOTH AMACRINE AND HORIZONTAL GET BIPOLAR BUT THERE IS AN "O" IN HORIZONTAL AND RECEPTOR) |
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in the eye these cells contact both the bipolar and the ganglion cells |
amacrine (BOTH AMACRINE AND HORIZONTAL CONTACT BIPOLAR CELLS, BUT AMA-GANGS UP) |
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In the eye these 4 kinds of cells do not produce action potentials, only graded local potentials. |
ROds COnes biPOlar HOrizontal
(RO.CO.PO.HO) |
RO.CO.PO .HO. |
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The quanta of light that strike the eye are captured by rods via this photopigment receptor molecule |
rhodopsin (Rhodopsin and RODS) |
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quanta of light that strike the eye to be captured by cones use these photopigment receptor molecules |
opsin and retinal(dehyde)
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When rhodopsin is hit by light in the rods retinal dissociates from the opsin molecule and reveals and enzymatic site. Then the altered opsin activates transducin which is a |
transducin is a G-protein |
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In the eye the capture of a single quantum of light can lead to the closing of hundreds of |
Na+ channels in the photoreceptor membrane (Closing the Na+ channels creates a hyperpolarization potential) |
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In the eye closing the Na+ channels due to the capture of a quantum of light creates what kind of potential (hyperpolarization/depolarization) |
hyperpolarization potential |
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Metabotropic |
A metabotropic receptor is a type of membrane receptor of eukaryotic cells that acts through a secondary messenger. It may be located at the surface of the cell or in vesicles.
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a type of membrane receptor of eukaryotic cells that acts through a secondary messenger.
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Metabotropic |
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The specialized chemoreceptors responsible for the human sense of smell are located in the PNS and pass through the ______ on their way to the olfactory bulb |
Cribiform Plate |
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TRUE OR FALSE: The pyriform projection of the olfactory bulb contacts the thalamus before proceeding to the orbitofrontal cortex. |
False |
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In non-primate vertebrates the ______ detects volatile chemicals |
Main olfactory system |
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In non-primate vertebrates the ______ detects pheremones |
accessory olfactory system |
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Olfactory receptor cells are (multipolar/pseudounipolar/unipolar/bipolar) |
bipolar |
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Olfactory receptor neurons are replaced every ______ weeks |
6 - 8 weeks |
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Odorant Receptor Neurons express ______ odorant receptor genes? (HOW MANY?) |
One |
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Odorant receptors can be described as: (C-Protein Coupled/Ionotropic/Inhibitory/metabotropic) |
Metabotropic A metabotropic receptor is a type of membrane receptor of eukaryotic cells that acts through a secondary messenger. |
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The olfactory bulb is comprised of groups of neuropil called |
glomeruli |
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These cell axons form the lateral olfactory tract, which sends its projectionns to several brain areas, including the amygdala and entorhinal cortex. |
Mitral
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Specialized receptors of odorant molecules are located on the _____ of bipolar cells. |
cilia |
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Olfactory g-protein receptor activation requires the displacement of ______ in exchange for ______ |
GDP/GTP (GTP = GO TO PLACES) |
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The olfactory epithelium is made of how many zones? |
IV (4) |
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The IV (4) olfactory zones are segregated on the basis of odorant receptor __________ (Expression/Availability) |
Expression |
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These cells make connections between photoreceptors and bipolar cells |
horizontal |
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these cells make connections between bipolar and ganglion |
amacrine |
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Brightness and contrast in the visual system are constructs of |
lateral inhibition |
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a ________ is a gap in perception where nothing can be consciously perceived |
scotoma |
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Large ganglion cells project to the _______ layer of the MGN |
magnocellular |
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Small ganglion cells project to the ______ layer of the MGN |
parvocellular |
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_______ cells are the only retinal cells capable of firing action potentials. |
ganglion |
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reduction of _____ near Na+ channels will cause them to close |
cGMP |
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Reduction of cGMP near Na+ channels will cause them to |
close |
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______ refers to the sensitivity of retinal ganglion cells to difference in light-exposure between center/surround |
luminance contrast |
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luminance contrast refer to the |
sensitivity of retinal ganglion cells to difference in light-exposure between center/surround. |
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The left occipital lobe gets input from |
both right and left eyes |
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_____ cells are necessary for boundary detection |
complex |
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Complex cells used in boundary detection get input from ________ cells |
simple |
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Cortical cell receptive fields show evidence of ______ |
frequency tuning |
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Area V1 is known as the |
primary visual cortex |
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Rhodopsin is a photopigment used in rods to perceive differences in |
illumination |
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The 3 axes of ____________ to which the vestibular system responds are X,Y, and Z |
angular acceleration |
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_____ cells are embedded in the cupulae of the ampullae, which sense rotation of the head |
hair |
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Vestibular nuclei send their axons to the |
VPN |
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If you see a particular pattern of dots on the wall, but do not realize the pattern is of a dog, you have experienced a ____ (perception/sensation/conversion/translation) |
sensation |
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vibrations are initiated in the cochlea by movement of the ______ against the oval window |
stapes |
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the organ of corti is located in the ______ canal |
cochlear |
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When hair cells bend ______ and _______ channels open to cause depolarization |
Na+ and Ca++ |
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The primary auditory cortex is located in the _______ lobe |
temporal (PrimAry and temPorAl) |
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at low frequencies, sound intensity is coded by this response property |
the number of neurons responding |
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Who proposed volley theory? |
Wever |
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what physiological limitation prevents a single auditory neuron from reliably tracking a high-frequency tone (10,000 Hz)? |
The refractory period |
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which sound frequency does NOT produce maximal vibration at a specific point on the basilar membrane? |
20Hz |
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The more numerous outer hair cells (OHCs) may be involved in |
increasing the cochlea's sensitivty |
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these cells may be involved in increasing the cochlea's sensitivity |
OHCs |
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Binaural cues for localizing sounds are processed by cells in which part of the brain?
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Superior Olivary Nucleus |
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differences in time of arrival of sound are processed using ______ which only fire when sounds from both ears reach it at the same time. |
coincidence detectors |
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Broca's area lies anterior and adjacent to the |
Motor cortex |
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____________________ area lies anterior and adjacent to the motor cortex |
Broca's Area |
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In most people Wernicke's area is found on the _____ lobe |
left temporal |
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People with ______ aphasia have difficulty understanding others and produce utterances that have no meaning. |
Wernicke's Aphasia |
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Frank had a stroke while driving home, but didn't realize it until he found he couldn't write a shopping list or read the news paper. Since he could still hear and speak normally, what part of his brain was affected? |
Angular Gyrus |
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the angular gyrus connects the visual projection area with the _____ areas |
auditory association areas and visual association areas. |
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the _____ connects the visual projection area with the auditory and visual association areas |
angular gyrus |
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According to the Wernicke-Geschwind model, when we give a spoken response to an oral question, what is the sequence of brain activation? |
auditory cortex to Broca's to Wernicke's |
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The most likely developmental anomaly in the language centers of the brain that causes dyslexia is a lateralized difference in the size of the |
planum temporale |
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Dyslexia has a higher rate in languages with different |
pronounciations of the same spelling |
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If someone has problems naming tools, using verbs, and imagining hand movements they have damage to which part of the brain |
premotor cortex |
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There is evidence that the right brain hemisphere may assume left hemisphere language functions in what group of people. |
children under 5 who suffer brain injury |
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that hemisphere of the brain is usually dominant in language? |
the left |
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TRUE OR FALSE: Mirror Neurons are found in Broca's and Wernicke's areas |
true |
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This theory accounds for low frequency sounds as neurons do fire at the same rate as low frequency sounds |
frequency theory |
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sounds below 200Hz are a problem for place theory because |
sounds below 200 Hz cause the entire basilar membrane to vibrate equally |
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an aphasia that deals with issues processing function words |
Broca's |
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When you write an answer to an oral question the pattern of activation is |
Auditory Cortex --> Wernicke's --> angular gyrus |
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When reading out loud the pattern of activation is |
visual system --> angular gyrus --> Wernicke's --> Broca's |
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n humans the range of visible light is ___ nm |
400 - 800 nm |
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The conversion of light energy into energy the brain can use begins in the |
receptors |
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True or false: photoreceptors are found at the front of the eye |
False, they are at the back |
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visual info from the nasal side of each retina crosses to the other hemisphere at the _____ |
optic chiasm |
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an object's image falls on slightly different parts of the two retinas, depending on the distance of the object... this is known as |
retinal disparity |
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these cells have bar-shaped receptive fields |
simple cells |
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Movement is detected by |
complex cells |
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low frequency contrast in objects is detected by different cells than high frequency contrast is an example of what theory |
spatial frequency theory |
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cells in the parvocellular system have _____ receptive fields |
small |
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the magnocellular system dominates the ____ stream that flows into the parietal lobes
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dorsal |
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the magnocellular system dominates the dorsal stream that flows into the _____ lobes |
parietal |
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True or false: Magnocellular cells in area V1 are responsive to orientation, movement, retinal disparity and color |
False, not color |
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Movement perception is a function of which brain area |
V5 |
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the ventral and dorsal streams of vision converge on the cortex |
prefronal |
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Object agnosia is often a result of damage to the _____ cortex |
inferior temporal |
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the ability to see an object is the same color despite different lighting conditions is known as |
color constancy |
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Zeki found that light wavelength is coded in area |
V1 |
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Zeki found that light color is coded in area |
V4 |
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someone with damage to the right posterior parietal cortex would probably exhibit |
left-side neglect |
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neglect occurs because of |
a lack of attention to the space on one side of the body |
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visual awareness is due to |
master cells in some part of the cortext that has not yet been identified. |
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