Test 2 - Prof. Pretell - A&p 2 - Immune, Lymph, Respiratory

Front 1

co2 pressure

Back 1

primary determinant of respiration

Front 2

perfusion

Back 2

sending blood to vessel, where low CO2 gets O2 blood

Front 3

lymph vessels are

Back 3

leakier than blood vessels

Front 4

in pulmonary circuit

Back 4

high CO2 gets O2 and blood

Front 5

O2 determines

Back 5

perfusions

Front 6

CO2 determines

Back 6

ventilation

Front 7

lymphatic vessels

Back 7

start in tissue

Front 8

respiratory restrictive disease

Back 8

lung can't comply and distend, lung is stiffened everywhere

Front 9

respiratory obstructive disease

Back 9

takes longer to breathe, due to obstruction or narrowing

Front 10

vital capacity

Back 10

all air you can willfully move

Front 11

inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

Back 11

amount you dont use or inspire when at rest

Front 12

tidal volume

Back 12

amount exhaled inhaled during quiet ventilation at rest

Front 13

movement of lymph caused by

Back 13

pulsation of arteries

Front 14

superficial lymphatic vessels run

Back 14

with veins

Front 15

deep lymphatic vessels run

Back 15

with arteries

Front 16

lymph nodes

Back 16

4 ways in, 2 ways out (4 afferent are going in, and 2 efferent exits)

Front 17

b cells, plasma cells, t cells

Back 17

are in lymph nodes

Front 18

germinal center

Back 18

multiplying b cells

Front 19

medulla

Back 19

macrophages and plasma cells

Front 20

spleen

Back 20

like a lymph node but instead of being in line with lymphatic system it is in line WITH THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM receiving blood

Front 21

spleen contents flow to

Back 21

liver

Front 22

macrophages in spleen

Back 22

remove old blood cells

Front 23

spleen has thin fibrous capsule

Back 23

fragile

Front 24

everything below diaphragm and also above the diaphragm to the RIGHT of the midline

Back 24

thoracic duct

Front 25

everything to the right of the midline above the diaphragm

Back 25

uses right lymphatic duct

Front 26

first job of lymphatic system to

Back 26

return interstitial fluid and proteins back to circulatory system

Front 27

second job of lymphatic system is to

Back 27

house portions of the immune system

Front 28

palatine and lingual tonsils are made of

Back 28

Non-keratinized stratified squamous

Front 29

third job of lymphatic system is to

Back 29

absorb dietary fats from the small intestine

Front 30

thoracic duct (lymphatic system)

Back 30

thoracis duct begins at vertebrae T-12 at the Cisterna Chyli

Front 31

thoracic duct flows anterior to

Back 31

vertebral column

Front 32

thoracic duct dumps its contents

Back 32

at left side where jugular vein and left subclavian artery come together, draining all lymphatic tissue below the diaphragm

Front 33

lymphatic ducts - trunks

Back 33

2 lumbar trunks, 2 medastinal trunks, 2 intestinal trunks

Front 34

above the diaphragm, thoracic duct only handles

Back 34

left arm left thorax and left side of face

Front 35

below the diaphragm

Back 35

thoracic duct

Front 36

immune system

Back 36

a diffuse organ system

Front 37

immune system components are

Back 37

cells and plasma proteins and organs

Front 38

a few parts of immune system belong to

Back 38

integumentary or digestive system

Front 39

job of immune system

Back 39

resistance to INFECTIOUS disease and NEOPLASTIC diseases (cancers), no degenerative disease

Front 40

innate immune system

Back 40

generalized defense

Front 41

adaptive immune system

Back 41

highly selective

Front 42

tonsils

Back 42

oval-shaped masses of lymphatic tissue (concentrations of lymphocytes and macrophages) strategically located to defend the body against bacteria and viruses entering the body through the mouth or nose

Front 43

humoral portion

Back 43

part of adaptive immune system

Front 44

innate defenses are divided into:

Back 44

surface barriers and INTERNAL DEFENSES

Front 45

Dendritic cells engulf

Back 45

exogenous pathogens, such as bacteria, parasites or toxins in the tissues and then migrate, via chemotactic signals, to the T cell enriched lymph nodes

Front 46

internal defenses

Back 46

cellular components, proteins and processes

Front 47

surface barriers of the innate immune system

Back 47

passive channel (skin)

Front 48

internal defenses of the innate immune system, INCLUDE white blood cells (WBCs) which are

Back 48

The innate leukocytes include: Natural killer cells, mast cells, eosinophils, basophils; and the phagocytic cells including macrophages, neutrophils and dendritic cells, and

Front 49

opsonizing

Back 49

is coating, the surface of the pathogen.

Front 50

negative pressure

Back 50

keeps lungs distended

Front 51

Exogenous antigens -- MHC class II -- CD4+ helper T-cells.

Back 51

Exogenous antigens are usually displayed on MHC class II molecules, which activate CD4+ helper T-cells.

Front 52

Endogenous antigens -- MHC class I molecules -- CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells.

Back 52

Endogenous antigens are typically displayed on MHC class I molecules, and activate CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells.

Front 53

All white blood cells (WBC) are known as leukocytes.

Back 53

Leukocytes are different from other cells of the body in that they are not tightly associated with a particular organ or tissue; thus, they function similar to independent, single-celled organisms.

Front 54

plasma cells

Back 54

Specialized B cells which churn out antibodies—more than two thousand per second. Most of these die after four to five days;

Front 55

With the exception of non-nucleated cells (including erythrocytes), MHC class I is expressed by all host cells.

Back 55

MHC Class 1 -- on all cells

Front 56

MHC class 2 is where?

Back 56

MHC Class 2 -- non nucleated erythrocytes and other cells

Front 57

erythrocytes -

Back 57

RBC red blodd cell

Front 58

leukocyte

Back 58

WBC white blood cell

Front 59

everyone has a

Back 59

type 1 MHC

Front 60

monocytes

Back 60

Large, agranular leukocytes with relatively small, eccentric, oval or kidney-shaped nuclei.

Front 61

type 1 MHC

Back 61

endogenous

Front 62

type 1 MHC

Back 62

CD8 Cells - type 1 times 8

Front 63

In order to kill, CD8 cells need to be

Back 63

stimulated and co-stimulated

Front 64

Antigen presenting cells

Back 64

wont get killed by CD8 Tc cytotoxic cells if they dont co-stimulate

Front 65

helper T cells

Back 65

CD4

Front 66

2 types helper T cells

Back 66

Helper t cells one and TWO. type one is really Cytotoxic T cells Tc, and Type TWO is regular helper T cells aka beta cells

Front 67

type one helper t cells

Back 67

endogenous

Front 68

type two helper t cells

Back 68

exogenous

Front 69

phagocytosis

Back 69

invariate chain

Front 70

invariate chain purpose

Back 70

prevent class 2 MHC from binding endogenous proteins in endoplasmic reticulum

Front 71

phago lysosome can

Back 71

remove invariate chain

Front 72

positive selection

Back 72

making sure T-cells bind to MHC of your body

Front 73

negative selection

Back 73

the only type of selection for B cells

Front 74

t cells

Back 74

these cells leave the marrow at an early age and travel to the thymus, where they mature. Here they are imprinted with critical information for recognizing “self” and “non-self” substances.

Front 75

b cells

Back 75

B cells spend their entire early life in the bone marrow. Upon maturity, their job is to travel throughout the blood and lymph looking for antigens with which they can interlock.



Once a B cell has identified an antigen, it starts replicating itself. These cloned cells mature into antibody-manufacturing plasma cells.

Front 76

b cells

Back 76

is presented antigens and b cell is eliminated if it reacts to antigens

Front 77

dendritic cells

Back 77

Mostly found in the skin and mucosal epithelium, where they are referred to as Langerhan's cells. Unlike macrophages, dendritic cells can also recognize viral particles as non-self. In addition, they can present antigens via both MHC I and MHC II, and can thus activate both CD8 and CD4 T cells, directly.

Front 78

clonal selection

Back 78

how the immune system responds to infection and how certain types of B and T lymphocytes are selected for destruction of specific antigens invading the body.

Front 79

memory cells

Back 79

Specialized B cells which grant the body the ability to manufacture more of a particular antibody as needed, in case a particular antigen is ever encountered again.

Front 80

macrophage

Back 80

Literally, “large eaters.” These are large, long-lived phagocytes which capture foreign cells, digest them, and present protein fragments (peptides) from these cells and manifest them on their exterior. In this manner, they present the antigens to the T cells.



Macrophages are strategically located in lymphoid tissues, connective tissues and body cavities, where they are likely to encounter antigens. They also act as effector cells in cell-mediated immunity.

Front 81

clonal selection's effect on b and t cells

Back 81

Clonal selection is an important immunological process that determines which B and T lymphocytes, types of white blood cells, will be produced in large quantities.

Front 82

t and b cells are the

Back 82

the lymphocytes of the adaptive immune system.

Front 83

clonal selection works by

Back 83

clonal expansion. You only have one cell to begin with that recognizes a given pathogen, but once that cell sees the pathogen it is able to recognize, it rapidly divides, producing thousands of copies of itself. Quite literally, the cell clones itself, expanding the population of lymphocytes able to fight the infection: hence, clonal expansion.

Front 84

why does clonal selection work

Back 84

The T's were able to clonally expand because they were the only cells that were able to "see" that pathogen because of their unique receptor

Front 85

antigen-presenting cells

Back 85

Cells which do not have antigen-specific receptors. Instead, they capture and process antigens, present them to T cell receptors. These cells include macrophages, dentritic cells and B cells.

Front 86

two types of human immunity

Back 86

The human immune system is divided into two main parts: humoral immunity, which deals with infectious agents in the blood and body tissues, and cell-mediated immunity, which deals with body cells that have been infected.

Front 87

humoral system is managed by

Back 87

B-cells

Front 88

cell-mediated system is managed by

Back 88

T-cells

Front 89

The humoral system of immunity is also called the

Back 89

antibody-mediated system because of its use of specific immune-system structures called antibodies.

Front 90

Antibodies (or immunoglobulin, Ig), are

Back 90

large Y-shaped proteins used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects

Front 91

In mammals there are five types of antibodies

Back 91

IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM

Front 92

macrophages digest the infectious agent and then

Back 92

display some of its components on their surfaces.

Front 93

most innate immune leukocytes cannot divide or reproduce on their own, but are

Back 93

the products of multipotent hematopoietic stem cells present in the bone marrow

Front 94

displays from macrophages are recognized by

Back 94

helper-T cells, which activate their immune response, and multiply rapidly. This is called the activation phase.

Front 95

Natural killer cells, mast cells, eosinophils, basophils; and the phagocytic cells including macrophages, neutrophils and dendritic cells

Back 95

innate leukocytes

Front 96

after the activation phase is the effector phase, which is when:

Back 96

The next phase, called the effector phase, involves a communication between helper-T cells and B-cells. Activated helper-T cells use chemical signals to contact B-cells, which then begin to multiply rapidly as well. B-cell descendants become either plasma cells or B memory cells. The plasma cells begin to manufacture huge quantities of antibodies that will bind to the foreign invader (the antigen) and prime it for destruction. B memory cells retain a "memory" of the specific antigen that can be used to mobilize the immune system faster if the body encounters the antigen later in life.

Front 97

negative selection is important because

Back 97

negative selection is important as it eliminates cells that might otherwise mount an autoimmune attack. It is one of the ways in which tolerance to self antigens is achieved.

Front 98

A response to an agent against which the body has already formed memory cells is called a

Back 98

secondary response.

Front 99

Clonal selection operates among the B and T cells of the immune system to

Back 99

select for replication only those that respond to a particular antigen.

Front 100

antibody that crosses placental barrier

Back 100

IGG

Front 101

iGM

Back 101

initial

Front 102

iGM

Back 102

pentamers

Front 103

antibody of secretions

Back 103

IGA

Front 104

IGA

Back 104

helps your ability to produce mucosal SECRETIONS

Front 105

IGD

Back 105

the immunoglobulin of B cell surfaces

Front 106

IGG

Back 106

most abundant immunoglobulin of immune response

Front 107

iGA

Back 107

mother's milk

Front 108

IGG and IGM

Back 108

can combine compliment

Front 109

residual volume

Back 109

amount of air that REMAINS after exhaled ERV (after expiratory reserve volume is gone)

Front 110

IGM size is

Back 110

the largest

Front 111

IGA

Back 111

can be a monomer or dimer

Front 112

IGA

Back 112

antibody of secretions, reinforce EPITHELIAL MUCOSAL BARRIER

Front 113

breast feeding

Back 113

passive

Front 114

IGD

Back 114

the immunogblobulin of the B cell surfaces

Front 115

IGD

Back 115

brought into B cell by phagocytosis-like process

Front 116

IGG

Back 116

most abundant of later primary immune response and secondary immune response

Front 117

IGM

Back 117

the initial antibody

Front 118

IGG and IGM

Back 118

seen in some Type 2 hypersensitivity reactions and all Type 3 hypersensitivity reactions

Front 119

IGD immunoglobulins

Back 119

plant themselves on B cell surfaces and wait to be stimulated by antigens

Front 120

When activated, mast cells rapidly release

Back 120

granules, rich in histamine and heparin, etc

Front 121

ACTIVE HUMORAL IMMUNITY

Back 121

Active humoral immunity is the development of antibodies in response to stimulation by an antigen.

Front 122

Once inside the cell, the invading pathogen is contained inside an endosome

Back 122

which merges with a lysosome.

Front 123

With active immunity,

Back 123

antigens enter the body and the body responds by making its own antibodies and B-memory cells

Front 124

Both passive and active immunity can be

Back 124

either naturally or artificially acquired.

Front 125

In passive immunity,

Back 125

antibodies made in another person or animal enter the body and the immunity is short-lived.

Front 126

Neutrophils, along with two other cell types; eosinophils and basophils (see below), are known as

Back 126

granulocytes due to the presence of granules in their cytoplasm.

Front 127

due to their distinctive lobed nuclei, NEUTROPHILS ARE:

Back 127

polymorphonuclear cells

Front 128

50 to 60% of the total circulating leukocytes

Back 128

ARE NEUTROPHILS

Front 129

passive, artificially aquired immunity

Back 129

antibodies made outside or in someone else's body, placed in your body

Front 130

active, artificially aquired immunity

Back 130

you get vaccinated and your body makes its own antibodies responding to the threat

Front 131

basophils

Back 131

can cause type 1 hypersensitivity reaction

Front 132

basophils fight by

Back 132

degranulation

Front 133

IGE

Back 133

reagent when part of type 1 hypersensitivity reaction

Front 134

IGE

Back 134

stimulates basophils

Front 135

Basophils jobs are to

Back 135

AMPLIFY IMMUNE RESPONSE

Front 136

BASOPHILS INCREASE THE NUMBER OF

Back 136

eosinophils

Front 137

Respiratory system is a physiological:

Back 137

buffer that helps avoid radical swings in pH in the face of swings in hydrogen ion concentration

Front 138

a buffer can absorb or release hydrogen as needed

Back 138

as a pH stabilizer

Front 139

pH is important to regulate because

Back 139

our enzymes are pH specific and can become denatured

Front 140

IGE

Back 140

released by basophils

Front 141

Basophils degranulate and release histamines which are

Back 141

inflammatory agents

Front 142

microglia are

Back 142

the main resident immunological cells and macrophages of the CNS.

Front 143

upper respiratory

Back 143

in your head, sneeze if irritated, larynx and above

Front 144

lower respiratory

Back 144

trachea and below

Front 145

CONDUCTING ZONE

Back 145

MOVEMENT OF AIR

Front 146

RESPIRATORY ZONE

Back 146

GAS EXCHANGE

Front 147

dead space

Back 147

Anatomical dead space is that portion of the airways (such as the mouth and trachea) which conducts gas to the alveoli.

Front 148

Eosinophils

Back 148

Eosinophil: A normal type of white blood cell that has coarse granules within its cytoplasm. Eosinophils are produced in the bone marrow and migrate to tissues

Front 149

turbinates or nasal conchae

Back 149

creates vibration/turbulence, humidifies because it is dripping wet,.....covered in irrigated mucosa

Front 150

turbinates or conchae

Back 150

warm the air coming in

Front 151

An antibody is made up of

Back 151

two heavy chains and two light chains. The unique variable region allows an antibody to recognize its matching antigen

Front 152

columnar pseudostratified ciliated epithelium

Back 152

respiratory tract

Front 153

lymphocytes, monocytes, and macrophages

Back 153

can be AGRANULAR OR lacking granules

Front 154

neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils

Back 154

three types of granulocytes

Front 155

T cells are useless without

Back 155

T cells are useless without antigen-presenting cells to activate them, and B cells are crippled without T-cell help.

Front 156

eosinophils make up

Back 156

1–4% of leukocytes

Front 157

larynx

Back 157

columnar epithelium

Front 158

larynx is

Back 158

largest purest cartilaginous organ

Front 159

epiglottis

Back 159

elastic cartilage

Front 160

basophils

Back 160

1% of leukocytes

Front 161

below the larynx is the

Back 161

trachea

Front 162

hyoid bone

Back 162

allows speaking

Front 163

larynx

Back 163

houses voice box

Front 164

behind arythmoid cartilage

Back 164

are the vocal folds

Front 165

vocalized sounds come from

Back 165

voice box uhh eeeh oooh

Front 166

articulated sounds come from

Back 166

the mouth lips, like consonants

Front 167

trachea

Back 167

C-shaped cartilage so one side can stretch when food (bolus) passes

Front 168

monocytes have a

Back 168

kidney bean shaped nucleus

Front 169

monocytes make up

Back 169

2-8% of leukocytes

Front 170

carina

Back 170

looks like little underwear (bifurcation)

Front 171

monocytes can develop into

Back 171

macrophages later

Front 172

lymphocytes have nuclei that

Back 172

are very large and take up most of the space

Front 173

lymphocytes make up

Back 173

25-33% of leukocytes in blood

Front 174

main stem > lobar > segmental

Back 174

bronchus order

Front 175

10 segmentals on right side, less than 10 segmentals on the left

Back 175

number of segmentals

Front 176

monocytes do not phagocytize until they become

Back 176

macrophages

Front 177

basement membrane in between epithelial cells

Back 177

in respiratory system... no connective tissue

Front 178

2 forces that can make your lungs collapse

Back 178

elastic fibers and surface tension (of water and alveoli), the latter of which is stronger

Front 179

microglia used to be

Back 179

monocytes

Front 180

80% of pressure is

Back 180

nitrogen

Front 181

20% of gas pressure is

Back 181

oxygen

Front 182

type 2 alveolar cells

Back 182

produce surfactant

Front 183

henry's law:

Back 183

solubility of gas is dependent on pressure behind that gas and the amount of liquid it wil dissolve in

Front 184

partial pressure

Back 184

the pressure which the gas would have if it alone occupied the volume.[1] The total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of each individual gas in the mixture.

Front 185

not much CO2

Back 185

in our atmosphere

Front 186

TWO sulchi (or sulchus) in

Back 186

right lung

Front 187

One sulchus (or fissure) in left lung

Back 187

left lung

Front 188

hemoglobin - carries one oxygen molecule in each of its four

Back 188

HEME

Front 189

97% of O2 is carried by

Back 189

hemoglobin.

Front 190

Only 3 percent of O2 carried as

Back 190

"free", diffused gas in blood plasma

Front 191

neutrophils are a type of

Back 191

myelocyte

Front 192

leukocytes are divided into

Back 192

myelocytes and lymphocytes

Front 193

NK (natural killer) cells

Back 193

are part of NONSPECIFIC, innate immune system

Front 194

NK cells are the

Back 194

lymphocytes of the immune system

Front 195

somatic recombination

Back 195

somatic recombination, is a mechanism of genetic recombination in the early stages of immunoglobulin (Ig) and T cell receptors (TCR) production of the immune system.

Front 196

Classical pathway

Back 196

used compliment proteins

Front 197

The product of somatic recombination

Back 197

Functional antibody genes...............Somatic recombination is the method by which functional antibody genes are created. It involves the rearrangement of many gene segments that code for the heavy and light chain proteins of immunoglobulins, and it only occurs in lymphocytes.

Front 198

diapedesis

Back 198

the movement of white blood cells, through intact capillary walls into surrounding interstitial space outside.

Front 199

diaphragm

Back 199

prime mover of ventilation

Front 200

In order for leukocytes to perform phagocytosis, they have to leave the bloodstream by

Back 200

diapedesis

Front 201

interferons are part of the

Back 201

innate immune system

Front 202

leukocytosis

Back 202

"long distance"

Front 203

diaphragm

Back 203

dome-shaped, has a central tendon, fibers run in a radial direction, fibers flatten when contracting the diaphragm, increasing volume of lungs

Front 204

external intercostal muscles

Back 204

makes chest/lungs WIDER and bigger outward

Front 205

beta cells

Back 205

become the giant lymphocytes known as plasma cells

Front 206

beta cells secrete

Back 206

thousands of antibodies

Front 207

internal intercostals

Back 207

pull ribcage INWARD and close the ribs

Front 208

exhale with the

Back 208

exhale with the internal intercostals

Front 209

inhale with the

Back 209

inhale with the external intercostals

Front 210

interferon comes in 3 types

Back 210

alpha, beta and gamma interferons

Front 211

RECEIVERS OF INTERFERONS

Back 211

TEMPORARILY ARE UNABLE TO REPRODUCE

Front 212

classical pathway uses

Back 212

antibodies

Front 213

IGM and IGG help to

Back 213

"fix" complement

Front 214

type 2 and 3 hypersensitivity

Back 214

IGG and IGM

Front 215

type 3 hypersensitivity reaction

Back 215

has to do with complement

Front 216

hemoglobin is a quaternary protein which means

Back 216

it is made up of individual protein chains

Front 217

rectus abdominus

Back 217

pull down on the ribcage - helping to exhale

Front 218

transverse abdominus

Back 218

increases interabdominal pressure by pushing up on the diaphragm

Front 219

CD8 are the most

Back 219

abundant lymphocytes

Front 220

NK cells are a type

Back 220

of small lymphocyte

Front 221

Margination

Back 221

accumulation and adhesion of leukocytes to the epithelial cells of blood vessel walls at the site of injury


in the early stages of inflammation.

Front 222

antibodies

Back 222

mark things

Front 223

gene

Back 223

portion of dna that codes for complete protein

Front 224

pleura

Back 224

has visceral layer that attached to outside of the lung

Front 225

pleura also has

Back 225

parietal layer that attaches to ribcage and diaphragm

Front 226

All IGMS have

Back 226

the same constant region

Front 227

type 3 hypersensitivity reaction

Back 227

EXCESSIVE AGGLUTINATION BY ANTIBODIES

Front 228

CLASS 1 MHC

Back 228

endogenous protein

Front 229

Class 2 Major Histocompatibility Complex

Back 229

Exogenous Protein

Front 230

CD8 must be both

Back 230

stimulated and costimulated

Front 231

eustachian tube function

Back 231

equalizes pressure

Front 232

turbinates conchis' moisturizing function is important because

Back 232

brittle dry lungs cannot diffuse gas

Front 233

pneumothorax

Back 233

a problem where the visceral layer or pleura and parietal layer can separate because air got in and they got punctured.

Front 234

soft palate goes up when

Back 234

swallowing

Front 235

pressure in your lungs called

Back 235

pulmonary pressure

Front 236

pressure between layers of pleura

Back 236

interpleural pressure

Front 237

transpulmonary pressure

Back 237

the difference between pulmonary pressure and interpleural pressure

Front 238

lungs and thoracic cavity connected via

Back 238

the pleura

Front 239

the are how many openings in the esophagus?

Back 239

two openings in esophagus

Front 240

left lung is

Back 240

smaller

Front 241

2 sphincters in trachea

Back 241

upper and also the lower (the carina)

Front 242

less than one mm in diameter

Back 242

bronchiole

Front 243

terminal bronchiole

Back 243

last part of conducting zone and beginning of respiratory zone

Front 244

alveolar ducts lead to

Back 244

alveoli channels

Front 245

SEPARATE 2 LAYERS IN THORACIC CAVITY

Back 245

CAUSES NEGATIVE PRESSURE

Front 246

in lungs, plaque is replaced by

Back 246

smooth muscle

Front 247

exhalation is

Back 247

passive

Front 248

inhalation is

Back 248

active and quick

Front 249

residual volume

Back 249

amount that remains after exhaled expiratory reserve volume

Front 250

O2 determines perfusion and

Back 250

CO2 determines ventilation

Front 251

Temperature down

Back 251

shift to the left

Front 252

pH down

Back 252

shift to the right

Front 253

BPG

Back 253

shift to the right

Front 254

muscles of neck are accessory muscles for

Back 254

inhalation

Front 255

muscles below are accessory for

Back 255

exhalation

Front 256

functional reserve capacity formula

Back 256

FRV = ERV + RV

Front 257

acidosis

Back 257

A greater number of hydrogen ions are present in the blood than can be absorbed by the buffer systems.

Front 258

CO2 penetrates

Back 258

blood brain barrier easily

Front 259

peripheral receptors

Back 259

act most importantly to detect variation of the oxygen in the arterial blood, in addition to detecting arterial carbon dioxide and pH.

Front 260

ERV

Back 260

What is left to exhale after a normal tidal exhalation.

Front 261

FEV1 decreases as

Back 261

airway radius is decreased

Front 262

compliance

Back 262

ability of lung to distend

Front 263

alkalosis

Back 263

when the concentration of hydrogen ions are decreased.

Front 264

apoptosis

Back 264

collapse on itself and scramble

Front 265

liver

Back 265

makes proteins of the compliment

Front 266

anterior cervica lymph nodes

Back 266

located beneath muscle

Front 267

complement fixation outcomes

Back 267

opsonization/phagocytosis, amplifying inflammation (C3a c5a), or cell lysis

Front 268

Igm igg

Back 268

classical pathway

Front 269

C3

Back 269

pathway

Front 270

T cells signalled by

Back 270

Contact

Front 271

Macrophage stimulates cd4

Back 271

And cd4 stimulates macrophage

Front 272

Classical pathway involves

Back 272

Antibodies

Front 273

Adaptive immune system

Back 273

Cellular immunity (t cells) , humoral immunity (b cells)

Front 274

Thymus gland

Back 274

Degenerates into fat after adolescence

Front 275

Thymus gland

Back 275

Develops t cell line

Front 276

T cell receptors

Back 276

TCRs (cd4 and cd8) interact with specialized receptors on all cells

Front 277

Tc

Back 277

Cd8 killer or cytotoxic t cells

Front 278

Cd4

Back 278

Amplify the immune response

Front 279

Hiv virus attacks the

Back 279

Cd4 or helper t cells

Front 280

Helper t cells type 1

Back 280

Amplify cytotoxic t cells

Front 281

Helper t cells type 2

Back 281

Amplify b cells

Front 282

Th1

Back 282

Killer t cells

Front 283

Th2

Back 283

B cells

Front 284

Helper t cells amplify

Back 284

Both innate.and adaptive immune cells

Front 285

Cd4

Back 285

Class 2 MHC

Front 286

Cd8

Back 286

MHC class 1

Front 287

Protein on outside of MHC II

Back 287

Signals to helper t cells

Front 288

Signalling cell in MHC II

Back 288

Is destroyed

Front 289

Class 1 mhc

Back 289

Has NO invariate chain

Front 290

Endogenous proteins

Back 290

MHC 1

Front 291

Cd4 cells and antigen presenting cells

Back 291

Both mutually stimulate each other in mutual amplification

Front 292

Cytotoxic t-cells

Back 292

Must be stimulated And co-stimulated in order to make perforin to perforate cells

Front 293

FAS receptors

Back 293

Cell's outer kill switch

Front 294

NK cells cause

Back 294

Apoptosis

Front 295

lymph vessels

Back 295

begin where capillary beds are, start in tissue

Front 296

lymph vessels known as right thoracic duct

Back 296

empty into superior vena cava

Front 297

superficial lymphatic vessels

Back 297

run with veins

Front 298

deep lymphatic vessels

Back 298

run with arteries

Front 299

T cells

Back 299

in transit in lymph nodes, transient

Front 300

b cells and plasma cells

Back 300

set up shop in lymph nodes

Front 301

germinal center

Back 301

b cells

Front 302

medulla

Back 302

macrophages and plasma cells

Front 303

outside germinal center

Back 303

antigen presenting cells

Front 304

axilla, cervical, inguinal

Back 304

outermost lymph nodes

Front 305

IGM:

Back 305

Expressed on the surface of B cells (monomer) and in a secreted form (pentamer) with very high avidity. Eliminates pathogens in the early stages of B cell mediated (humoral) immunity before there is sufficient IgG

Front 306

IGG:

Back 306

n its four forms, provides the majority of antibody-based immunity against invading pathogens. The only antibody capable of crossing the placenta to give passive immunity to fetus.

Front 307

IGE:

Back 307

Binds to allergens and triggers histamine release from mast cells and basophils, and is involved in allergy. Also protects against parasitic worms

Front 308

spleen

Back 308

storage area of iron, has thin fibrous capsule

Front 309

IGD:

Back 309

Functions mainly as an antigen receptor on B cells that have not been exposed to antigens. It has been shown to activate basophils and mast cells to produce antimicrobial factors

Front 310

IGA

Back 310

Found in mucosal areas, such as the gut, respiratory tract and urogenital tract, and prevents colonization by pathogens. Also found in saliva, tears, and breast milk

Front 311

unloading oxygen in internal respiration

Back 311

shape of hemoglobin changes so that it can bind hydrogen and CO2

Front 312

internal respiration

Back 312

gas exchange at systemic capillary tissue level... unloading of oxygen allows the ONLOADING of CO2...

Front 313

Most of Oxygen is transported bound to CO2

Back 313

...and 1-2% dissolved in plasma

Front 314

hemoglobin must have

Back 314

high pCO2 and low O2 tension so that arteriole opens up and allows O2 to be released by hemoglobin

Front 315

7% of CO2 is carried as

Back 315

gas in blood

Front 316

carbonic acid

Back 316

only volatile liquid acid (can turn into gas) in the blood

Front 317

two types of acidosis

Back 317

metabolic acidosis and respiratory acidosis

Front 318

two types of alkalosis

Back 318

metabolic acidosis and respiratory acidosis

Front 319

when respiratory system cannot control the amount of carbonic acid

Back 319

respiratory acidosis if too much, respiratory alkalosis if not enough

Front 320

IGG

Back 320

...is a monomer

Front 321

IGM:

Back 321

usually a pentamer

Front 322

IGA:

Back 322

DIMER

Front 323

IGE

Back 323

...is a monomer (G.E.D.)

Front 324

breath faster:

Back 324

CO2 drops

Front 325

hold your breath:

Back 325

CO2 rises

Front 326

Bohr effect

Back 326

relationship of hydrogen with hemoglobin molecule, affecting hemoglobin's ability to carry oxygen

Front 327

majority of CO2 is transported

Back 327

AS BICARBONATE AND DISSOLVED IN THE PLASMA

Front 328

If you allow bicarbonate to leak out of the blood,

Back 328

you will build up electropositivity in erythrocyte so chloride is used to balance that = CHLORIDE SHIFT

Front 329

in areas of high CO2, oxygen is released

Back 329

due to chloride shift

Front 330

bicarbonate's outflow

Back 330

is countered by chloride shift, which allows bicarbonate to leave cel without giving it a charge

Front 331

due to chloride shift

Back 331

hydrogen binds to hemoglobin, causing bohr effect, causing O2 release

Front 332

chloride shift happens in

Back 332

...systemic capillary bed

Front 333

CO2 leaves capillary, following its partial pressure gradient

Back 333

reaction to the left as CO2 leaves in alveolar air = HALDANE EFFECT

Front 334

haldane effect is:

Back 334

Deoxygenation of the blood increases its ability to carry carbon dioxide; this property is the Haldane effect. Conversely, oxygenated blood has a reduced capacity for carbon dioxide.

Front 335

haldane effect is done because of -

Back 335

co2 concentrations

Front 336

bohr effect is initiated by -

Back 336

the binding of hydrogen

Front 337

ige:

Back 337

hypersensitivity reaction type (ONE )1

Front 338

peripheral receptors and central receptors affect:

Back 338

three regulatory control centers (2 in medulla and 1 in pons) that accelerate or decelerate VENTILATION

Front 339

CHEMORECEPTORS ARE IN:

Back 339

NECK AND UPPER CHEST

Front 340

CHEMORECEPTORS ALSO SEND SIGNALS

Back 340

TO VASOMOTOR CENTERS

Front 341

central receptors:

Back 341

in brain's fourth ventricle....STIMULATED EXCLUSIVELY BY CO2, but not directly. hydrogen ions take care of stimulating central receptors with the help of carbonic acid...

Front 342

peripheral receptors:

Back 342

found at CAROTID SINUS AND AORTIC ARCH, sensitive to O2, CO2 and pH, can be stimulated by respiratory and metabolic acids

Front 343

CO2 easily goes through:

Back 343

blood brain barrier

Front 344

afferent - all in

Back 344

efferent - exit

Front 345

lymphocytes

Back 345

primary cells of lymphatic system, respond to internal&external threats

Front 346

monocytes and macrophages

Back 346

produced in red bone marrow

Front 347

tonsils

Back 347

lymphoid tissues

Front 348

spleen and thymus

Back 348

lymphoid organs

Front 349

red bone marrow

Back 349

helps lymphoid organs and tissues by making some lymphocytes of its own

Front 350

hematopoietic stem cells-

Back 350

Make both WBC's and RBC's

Front 351

humoral immunity-

Back 351

adaptive immune system

Front 352

humoral immunity-

Back 352

when things that circulating in extracellular fluids make you immune

Front 353

extracellular fluid=

Back 353

interstitial fluid, blood plasma, lymph,

Front 354

nk cells are similar to-

Back 354

t cells

Front 355

phagocytes-

Back 355

innate defenses

Front 356

phagocytes:

Back 356

myelocytes

Front 357

neutrophils numerous

Back 357

60% of WBCs

Front 358

neutrophils lumpy nucleus means

Back 358

polymorphonuclear cell

Front 359

neutrophils conduct

Back 359

phagocytosis, that is how they defend us

Front 360

neutrophils, basophils and eosoniphils are all-

Back 360

granulocytes

Front 361

granulocytes degranulate and release-

Back 361

hydrolytic enzymes to digest stuff they find

Front 362

basophils ARE A TYPE OF-

Back 362

granulocyte

Front 363

basophils ARE-

Back 363

capable of phagocytosis but their MAIN TOOL IS DEGRANULATION

Front 364

MAIN TRICK OF -EOSONIPHILS

Back 364

TO DEGRANULATE

Front 365

histamines

Back 365

react slowly

Front 366

histamines

Back 366

amplify inflammation by interacting with antibodies at receptors at the surface

Front 367

innapropriate basophil triggering of HISTAMINE RELEASE causes:

Back 367

type 1 hypersensitivity reaction

Front 368

B cells begin to express both IgM and IgD when

Back 368

when they reach maturity

Front 369

eosinophils

Back 369

bind with eosin.... eosinophils make up 2-3% of circulating WBC

Front 370

basophils

Back 370

make up 5% of circulating WBCs

Front 371

lymphocytes made in the thymus are-

Back 371

t cells

Front 372

monocytes

Back 372

are AGRANULOCYTES

Front 373

MONOCYTES LAST FOR

Back 373

A LONG TIME relative to other WBCs, monocytes stay a day longer in the blood stream circulating before they enter tissue

Front 374

eosoniphils

Back 374

FIGHT PARASITES using phagocytosis or degranulation if necessary

Front 375

granulocytes

Back 375

dont spend a lot of time circulating, only 8 hrs at most in the blood before they enter tissue

Front 376

when granulocytes leave bone they are already:

Back 376

ready to defend the body

Front 377

monocytes are made in bone

Back 377

when they leave they enter into circulation

Front 378

when monocytes get into tissue

Back 378

they grow and grow into MACROPHAGES

Front 379

neutrophils are the pawns

Back 379

giant macrophages are the rooks or bishops (more powerful) phagocytize hundreds of bacteria per minute.........................monocytes wander tissue like small tanks

Front 380

microglia only leave the blood

Back 380

ONCE

Front 381

MICROGLIA ENTER BRAIN ONCE

Back 381

AND CAN REPRODUCE IN BRAIN

Front 382

NK CELLS

Back 382

INNATE IMMUNE SYSEM

Front 383

LYMPHCYTES AND MYELOCYTES

Back 383

ARE THE TWO WBC types

Front 384

microglia

Back 384

Macrophage of the CNS

Front 385

Phagocytes

Back 385

eat destroy then present what they ate

Front 386

microglia

Back 386

a type of neuroglia, that is a tissue macrophage

Front 387

vasodilation causes

Back 387

increased perfusion of blood

Front 388

during inflammatory response

Back 388

capillary permeability is increased, so proteins like Fibrin escape