Test 2 Anatomy

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transcription

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process of copying genetic instructions from DNA to RNA

DNA to RNA

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translation

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Converts language of nucleotides to language of amino acids

mRNA to PROTEIN

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RNA size

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Smaller than DNA; 1 Chain

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RNA contains ____ instead of thymine

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Uracil

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Function of RNA

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interpret DNA code and direct protein synthesis in cytoplasm

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steps in the cell cycle

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G1 phase
S phase
G2 phase
M phase
G0 phase

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g1 phase

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accumulates materials needed to replicate DNA

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S phase

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DNA replication

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G2 phase

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Replicate centrioles synthesizes enzymes for division

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M phase

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Nuclear and cytoplasmic division

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G0 phase

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Cells that have left the cycle. Duration of cell cycle varies with cell type

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Steps of Mitosis

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prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase

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Prophase

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chromatin condenses into chromosomes and nuclear envelope breaks down spindle fibers grow from centrioles. Centrioles migrate to opposite poles

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metaphase

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chromosomes lie along midline of cell. Some spindle fibers attach to kinetochores. fibers of aster attatch to plasma membrane

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anaphase

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centomeres divide in 2. Spindle fibers pull sister chromotids to opposite poles of cell. Each pole has identicle set of gemes

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telephase

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chromosomes gather at each pole. Chromatin decondenses. New cuclear envelope appear in each nucleaus. Mitotic spindle vanishes

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2 types of tumors

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benign and malignant

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malignant

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unencapsuled, fast growing metastatic (spreading) stimulate angiogenesis

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benign

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connective tissue capsule, slow growth stays local. Potentially lethal by compression of vital tissue

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causes of cancer

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carcinogens 60-70% of cancers are caused by carcinogens

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carcinogens include:

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Chemical
Radiation
Viruses

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What trigger gene mutations?

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Carcinogens

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what happens when carcinogens trigger gene mutations

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the cell may die, be destroyed by immune system or produce a tumor

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Malignant Tumors have genes. These genes are called what?

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Oncogenes

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what are oncogenes

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Mutated form of normal growth factor genes called protooncogenes.

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Sis oncogene causes what?

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Excessive production of growth factors

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Ras Oncogene codes for what?

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Abnormal growth factor receptors

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Tumor Supressor Genes do what?

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Inhibit the development of cancer and damage to 1 or both removes control of cell division

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Three effects of malignancies

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Displace normal tissue and organ function deteriorates

Block vital passageways (block air flow or rupture bvs)

Divert nutrients from healthy tissues

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Metablolic rates in tumors increase or decrease

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increase

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tumors cause what symptoms

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fatigue, emaciation, Susceptability to infection

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how many different cell types are there?

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200

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what are the four primary tissue classes?

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Epithelial
nervous
Muscular
Connective

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What is an organ

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Structure with discrete boundries composed of 2 or more tissue types

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How can you determine the difference between tissue classes?

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By types and functions of cell

Characteristics of matrix (fibrous or ground)

Space occupied by cells versus matrix

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what is an embryo?

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Begins as single cell but divides into many cells and layers (strata)

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How many primary germ layers are there? Name them

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3
Ectoderm
Endoderm
Mesoderm

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what is the ectoderm germ layer and what does it do

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Outer layer; forms spidermis and nervous system

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what is the endoderm germ layer and what does it do

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inner layer; forms mucous membrane lining GI tract and respiratory system and digestive glands

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What is the mesoderm germ layer and what does it do?

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Middle layer (which becomes mesenchyme)

wispy collagen fibers and fibroblasts in gel matrix

gives rise to muscle, bone, blood

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Epithelial Tissue layers are

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closely adehering cells

flat sheet with upper surface exposed to the environment or an internal body cavity

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Do epithelial tissues have blood vessels?

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No

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Where do epithelial tissues rest?

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on the basement membrane

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Nerve Tissue

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Lg cells with long axons

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Internal communications between cells

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In brain, spinal cord, nerves and ganglia

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Muscle Tissue are what kind of cell?

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Elongated cells

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why are muscle tissue cells elongated?

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to contract

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Exert physical force on other tissues

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move limbs, push blood through bvs and expel urine

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There are 3 types of muscle tissues. What are they?

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Skeletal, Cardiac and Smooth

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Connective tissues are what?

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Widely spaces cells separated by FIBERS and GROUND SUBSTANCES

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What are the functions of Connective Tissues?

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Connects Organs
Gives support/protection
Movement and transport of materials

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Adipocytes stor what?

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Triglycerides

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What do fibroblast do?

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Produce fibers and ground Substances

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There are how many cells of Connective Tissue? Name them

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4
Macrophages
Neutrophils
Plasma Cells
Mast Cells

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what do MACROPHAGES do?

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Phagocytize foreign material and activate immune system (they arise from monocytes)

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What do NEUTROPHILS do?

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Wonder in search of bacteria

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what do PLASMA CELLS do?

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Synthesize antibodies (they arise from WBC's)

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What do MAST CELLS do?

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Secrete

Heparin inhibits clotting
histamine dialates bv's

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Fibrous Connective Tissue has 2 types of tissue. Name them both

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Loose connective tissue

Dense Connective tissue

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What is loose connective tissue?

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Gel like GROUND SUBSTANCE btwn cells

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three types of loose connective tissue:

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Areolar
Reticular
Adipose

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What is dense connective tissue?

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fibers fill spaces between cells. Types vary in fiber orientation

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Two types of dense connective tissue:

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Dense Regular
Dense Irregular

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Three types of tissue growth

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Hyperplasia
Hypertrophy
Neoplasia

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What is Hyperplasia

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tissue growth through cell multiplication

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What is hypertrophy?

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Enlargement of preexisting cells (muscle grow through exercise)

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What is Neoplasia?

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Growth of a tumor (benign or malignant) through growth of abnormal tissue

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Tissues change types through:

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Differentiation and Metaplasia

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What is differentiation?

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Unspecialized tissues of embryo become specialized mature types (mesenchyme to muscle)

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What is metaplasia?

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Changing from one type of mature tissue to another

Ex: simple cuboidal tissue before puberty changes to statified squamous after puberty.

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What are stem cells?

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Undifferentiated cells with developmental plasticity

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Embryonic stem cells

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totipotent (any cell type possible)
comes from very early embryo

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pluripotent means what?

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Tissue types only possible

Comes from cells of inner cell mass of embryo

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Adult Stem Cells

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Undifferentiated celss in tissues of adults are multipotent (bone marrow producing several blood cell types

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what is unipotent?

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Only Epidermal cells produced

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What is Atrophy?

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Loss of cell size or number

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Apoptosis

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programmed cell death (cells shrink and are phagocytized-no inflammation)

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Necrosis

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Pathological death of tissues

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Gangrene

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insufficient blood supply

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gas gangrene

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anaerobic bacterial infection

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infarction

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death of tissue from lack of blood

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decubitus ulcer

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bed sore or pressure sore

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what is regeneration?

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replacement of damaged cells with functional tissue

ex. skin injuries and liver regenerate

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Fibrosis

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replacement of damaged cells with scar tissue

function is not restored

Ex: healing muscle injuries, scarring of lung tissue in TB or healing of severe cuts and burns of skin

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Wound healing laceration process

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damages vessels leak blood

damaged cells and mast cells

leak Histamine->dialate bvs increase blod flow and increase capillary permeability

plasma carries anitbodies, clotting factors and WBC's into wound

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Wound Healing of a Laceration

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clot forms

Scarm forms on surface

Macrophages start to clean up debris