Test 1 Vocab

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Ecology

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the study of interactions among organisms and between organisms and their environment

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biotic

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interactions among living organisms

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abiotic

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interactions between organisms and their physical environment

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physics is to engineering

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as ecology is to environmental science

environmental science relies on the principles of ecology to solve environmental problems

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organismal ecology

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divided into 3 categories

evolutionary ecology

behavioral ecology

physiological ecology

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evolutionary ecology

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how organisms have evolved to adapt to their environment through interactions with individuals, populations and other species

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behavioral ecology

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focuses on how the behavior of an individual organism contributes to its survival and reproductive success, which effects the abundance of a population

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physiological ecology

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investigates how organisms are physiologically adapted to their environment and how the environment impacts the distribution of species

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species interaction

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competition, predation, mutualism, commensalism, herbivory and parasitism

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population ecology

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populations, groups of interbreeding individuals that occur in the same place at the same time

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ecosystem

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a living biotic community and its nonliving abiotic environment

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ecosystems ecology

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deals with the flow of energy and cycling of nutrients among organisms within a community and between organisms and the environment

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extinction

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the process by which species die out

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biodiversity crisis

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elevated loss if species

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Conservation biology

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studies how to protect the biological diversity of life at all levels

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deforestation

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the conversion of forested areas to non-forested land (prime cause of the extinction of species)

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invasive species

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spreading naturally and outcompeting native species for space and resources (4,500 in the US)

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biological control

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importing species natural enemies to prevent invasive species

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allelochemicals

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toxins that kill the roots of other species

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scientific method

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1. observation

2. hypothesis formation

3. hypothesis testing

4. data analysis

5. acceptance or rejection of the hypothesis

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correlation

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meaningful relationship between two variables

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replication

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performing an experiment several times

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speciation

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formation of new species

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Four patterns of natural selection

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directional, stabilizing, balancing, & disruptive

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directional selection

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favors individuals at one extreme of a phenotypic distribution that have greater reproductive success in a particular environment

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stabilizing selection

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favors the survival of individuals with intermediate phenotypes (birds with more eggs have lower fitness, intermediate # of eggs = higher fitness)

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balancing selection

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type of natural selection that maintains genetic diversity in a population

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disruptive selection

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favors the survival of individuals at both extremes of a range, rather than the intermediates.

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biological species concept

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Ernst's definition of species

groups of populations that can actually or potentially exchange genes with one another and that are reproductively isolated from other such groups

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phylogenetic species concept

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advocates that members of a single species are identified by a unique combination of characters

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evolutionary species concept

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(simpson) a species is distinct from other linages if it has its own evolutionary tendencies and historical fate

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hybridization

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breeding between individuals from different species

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ecological species concept

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each species occupies a distinct ecological niche, a unique set of habitat requirements

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allopatric speciation

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spatial separation of populations by a geographical barrier

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sympatric speciation

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when members of a species that initially occupied the same habitat within the same range diverge into 2 or more different species

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continental drift

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the slow movement of the Earth's surface plates

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red queen hypothesis

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continual race with no winners, only losers

in an ever changing world, species must continually evolve and change in order not to go extinct

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gradualism

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new species evolve continuously over long periods of time

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punctuated equilibrium

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the tempo of evolution is more sporadic

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7 characteristics that affect species' sensitivity to extinction

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1. rarity

2. dispersal ability

3. degree of specialization

4. population variability

5. feeding level

6. life span

7. reproductive ability

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behavior

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observable response of organisms to external or internal stimuli

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behavioral ecology

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the study of how behavior contributes to the differential survival and reproduction of organisms

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ethology

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scientific studies of animal behavior

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proximate causes

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genetic and physiological mechanisms of behavior

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altruism

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behavior that appears to benefit others at cost to oneself

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group selection

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premise that natural selection produces outcomes beneficial for the whole group or species

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individual selection

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particular traits generally are selected because they benefit the survival and reproduction of the individual rather than the group

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coefficient of relatedness

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probability that any 2 individuals will share a copy of a particular gene by descent (r)

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inclusive fitness

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designates the total number of copies of genes passed on through one's relatives, as well as one's own reproductive output

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kin selection

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selection for behavior that lowers an individual's own fitness but enhances the reproductive success of a relative

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hamilton's rule

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altruistic gene will be favored by natural selection

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eusociality

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vast majority of females rarely reproduce themselves but instead help one reproductive female to raise offspring

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haplodiploidy

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system of sex determination

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reciprocal altruism

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the cost to the animal of behaving altruistically is offset by the likelihood of a return benefit

"you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours"

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Game theory

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branch of mathematics and economics that studies interactions btwn agents.

Ex: when is the best time to flee or when is the best time to stay and fight?

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evolutionary stable strategy (ESS)

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a behavioral strategy that if adopted by a population cannot be invaded by any other species

keep your story the same & no one gets written up

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many eye hypothesis

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by living in a group, individuals may decrease the amount of time each spends scanning for predators and increase the time they have to feed

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the "selfish herd"

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animals in the center of a herd may be more inaccessible to predators

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optimality modeling

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predicts that an animal should behave in a way that maximizes the benefits of a behavior minus its costs

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promiscuous

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each male mating with multiple partners within a breeding season (bonobos)

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monogamy

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each individual mates exclusively with one partner over at least a single breeding cycle and sometimes for longer (birds)

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polygamy

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system in which either males or females mate with more than one partner in a breeding season

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polygyny

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one male mates with more than one female but females mate only with one male (elephant seal)

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polyandry

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one female mates with several males but males mate with only one female (pipefish)

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mate-guarding hypothesis

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a male stays with a female to protect her from being fertilized by other males

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male assistance hypothesis

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males remain with females to help them rear their offspring

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female-enforced monogamy hypothesis

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females stop their male partners from being polygynous

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leks

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commanunal courting areas where females come to find mates

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sexual selection

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selection that promotes traits that will increase an organisms mating success

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runaway selection

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females chose mate based on plumage color or courtship display

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handicap principle

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long tail feathers function as a sign of an individuals genetic quality because the bearer must be able to afford this energetically costly triat

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countercurrent heat exchange

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mechanism that conserves body heat by minimizing heat loss in the extremities and returning heat to the body core

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supercooling

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ability to withstand freezing

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Bergmann's rule

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largest species occurred at higher latitudes, where it is colder

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Allen's rule

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among closely related endothermic vertebrates, those living in colder environments tend to have shorter appendages than those living in warmer environments

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conduction

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the body surface loses or gains heat through direct contact with cooler or warmer substances such as air or water

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convection

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the transfer of heat by the movement of air or water next to the body

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evaporation

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occurs when organisms lose water from their surfaces and heat from a plant's leaves or an animal's body is used to drive this process

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microclimate

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variations of the climate within a given area

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greenhouse effect

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temperatures would be much lower without it

warming earth is similar to a greenhouse system

p. 113

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acclimation

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many species can adapt to slight changes in their environment within their own lifetime

ex: humans adjusting to warmer temps when they move

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urohydrosis

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some birds such as vultures and storks excrete urine on their legs, cooling themselves by evaporation

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halophytes

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species that can tolerate higher salt concentrations in their cell sap than regular plants

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pH

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negative logarithm to the base 10 of the hydrogen ion concentration

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acid rain

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precipitation with a pH of less than 5.6

results from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas & oil

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humus

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finely ground organic matter, is produced, and eventually the minerals are absorbed by plant roots

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soil profile

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soils developed vertical structure

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Macronutrients

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nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron & sodium

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limiting factor

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elements that are most scarce in relation to need (nitrogen)

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fixed nitrogen

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p. 142

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herbivores

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animals that eat only plants and their digestive system contains microbes that aid in digestion of cellulose (have a longer intestine)

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euphotic zone

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narrow zone close to surface, where light is sufficient to allow photosynthesis to exceed respiration

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obligate aerobes

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they require oxygen to live

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obligate anaerobes

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live in a complete absence of oxygen

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facultative anaerobes

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species that may or may not use oxygen, depending on availability

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quadrat

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square frame sampling device (lab plots)

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line transects

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a long piece of string that is stretched out and the number of trees along its length are counted

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mark-recapture technique

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after the tagged animals are released, they mix freely with unmarked individuals and within a short time are randomly mixed within the population (often used to estimate pop size)

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clumped

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type of dispersion

most common, resources tend to be clustered in nature

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uniform

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caused by competition

starts out random

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random

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rarest dispersion rate b/c resources in nature are rarely randomly spaced

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landscape ecology

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subdiscipline of ecology that examines the spatial arrangement of elements in populations and communites

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habitat

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patches which contain the food and environmental conditions necessary to support a particular organism

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matrix

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most extensive element of an area

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landscape connectivity

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the extent to which different patches are functionally connected by habitat corridors

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metapopulation

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series of small, separate populations in individuals habitat patches that mutually affect one another

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cohort

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a group of same-aged young which grow and survive at similar rates

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cohort life table

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follows the cohort of individuals from birth to death

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static life table

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data is gathered on the age structure of a given population at one point in time

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net reproductive rate

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the average number of female offspring produced by all the females in a population over the course of a generation where a generation constitutes the reproductive life of females