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125 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the two main topics of Evolutionary Biology? |
1. The causes of evolution. 2. The history of life. |
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What does evolution provide for all of biology? |
Evolution provides a framework for all of biology. |
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What are the 3 areas where evolution has a broader impact on society? |
Medicine, conservation, and agriculture |
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How does medicine have an impact on society because of evolution? |
- Antibiotic resistant diseases - Evolution of infectious diseases |
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How does conservation have an impact on society because of evolution? |
- Defining specie of conservation concern - Understanding species going extinct and how extinction might be prevented. - Understanding small population problems |
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How does agriculture have an impact on society because of evolution? |
-Artificial selection -Pesticide resistance insects and plants -GMOs |
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What is artificial selection? |
Evolution driven by human selection. |
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Define hypothesis: |
Informed and testable statement of what may be true (working assumption). |
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Define Fact: |
Hypothesis so firmly supported by evidence that we assume and act as if it were true. - The sun is the center of the universe. |
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Define Theory: |
An overarching set of mechanisms or principles that explain a major aspect of natural world (A mature conceptual framework). |
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What is Evolutionary theory? |
A mature conceptual framework that addresses the causes of evolution. |
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Evolution is a hypothesis/fact/theory, explained by ______________. |
Fact, Evolutionary Theory |
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What is the scientific method? |
A framework to help you start thinking about how science approaches problems. |
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What is a key component of being a scientist? |
Communication |
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What are two main forms of scientific presentation? |
1. Oral presentation 2. Scientific Literature |
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Where is an oral presentation often given at? |
National meetings |
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What other form does oral presentation take? |
Academic seminar |
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What is scientific literature? |
Writing that presents the result of scientific work. |
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What are two levels of scientific literature? |
1. Primary Literature 2. Reference sources (Tertiary) |
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What does primary literature present? |
Results of original research that is peer reviewed, which is what sets it apart. (e.g. Nature, Science, Evolution) |
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What is peer review? |
Prior to being published, research is sent out for other like scientists to test. Also allows some control by larger scientific communities. |
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What are two main graphs used? |
Bar graph and line graph (scatter plot) |
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What is tertiary literature? |
Literature that offers an overview of scientific topics, data, and facts. Examples: Newspapers, wikipedia, many websites, etc. |
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The public is more likely to get scientific information from what type of literature? |
Tertiary |
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Define abstract: |
What is the concise summary of study? |
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Define the introduction: |
Background/relevant information and hypothesis |
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What are the material and methods part? |
How data was collected and analyzed |
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Define results: |
What was found, including statistics, figures and tables. |
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Define discussion: |
The author(s)' interpretation of the results |
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Define references: |
Relevant scientific literature referred to in the text. |
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What are figures and tables? |
Graphical representation of the data. |
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What is an epidemic? |
Localized cluster of cases (outbreak). Spacial scale can vary (city, country, continent). |
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What is a pandemic? |
A worldwide epidemic. |
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Background history of the Black death (bubonic plague): |
~1300-1700, 75 million people died -includes 1/3 to 2/3 of all Europeans. |
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Background history of small pox: |
- 300 million people died in the 20th century. - Eradicated by 1979 - only human pathogen to go extinct. |
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Background history of typhus: |
- Common to have outbreaks in cramped unsanitary conditions. - Vaccine developed during WWII |
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Background history of cholera: |
- Between 1816 - 1960 millions of people died in series of pandemics. - Before treatment was found the mortality rate was more than 50%. |
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Background history of 1918 influenza pandemic: |
- Nickname is the Spanish Flu - 20% of global population was infected - Killed 50-100 million - The most susceptible individuals were between the ages of 20 and 40 years old |
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What are the types of influenza? |
Type C, Type B, Type A |
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Which type of Influenza is the most severe and why? |
Type A, It has animal reservoirs, can become an epidemic, and pandemic, and the antigenic changes is both shift and drift. And most common one to circulate. |
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What are all viruses and what do the rely on? |
All viruses are obligate, intracellular parasites that rely on a host to survive and reproduce. |
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What do infected particles generally only consist of? |
Viral genes in a protein shell. |
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A virus can have a genome type of: |
- DNA or RNA - Double or single stranded - If single: Positive or negative sense. |
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What type of genome does influenza have? |
Negative sense, single stranded, RNA virus that carry RNA polymerase with it to produce mRNA. (The RNA copied to mRNA before it can reproduce) |
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________ RNA strands that encode ______ proteins. |
8, and 10 |
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What are the two key surface proteins? |
Hemagglutinin (17 known), Neuraminidase (10 known) |
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What does Hemagglutinin do? |
Allows the virus to attach to the host cell. (H in H1N1, H5N1, etc.) |
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What does neuraminidase do? |
Helps the virions to be released from the cell. (N in H1N1, H3N2, etc.) |
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What is the hemagglutinin/neuraminidase protein code for: 1918 pandemic, 2009 swine flu, avian flu, "swine flu"? |
H1N1, H1N1, H5N1, H1N1/H2N1/H3N2 |
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How many new viruses can one host cell produce? |
Up to a million new viruses |
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What type of cells does influenza infect? |
Epiphelia cells |
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Virus binds via ________ to a cel membrane terminating with __________. |
Hemagglutinin, sialic acid |
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Where does the virus enter the host from? |
The endosome |
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What is a vRNP? |
Nucleoprotein core with RNA wrapped around it. |
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Where does vRNP escape to and then enter? |
cytoplasm, cell nucleus |
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What do the viral polymerases and host machinery do? |
transcribe and replicate the virus. |
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Where do the viruses bud from? |
The host cell plasma membrane (Neuraminidase helps with this.) |
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Why do we have to get a flu vaccine each year? |
The influenza virus is not very good at copying itself, resulting in the production of some virions with mutations and a variation of the viral population in the host cell. |
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What is antigenic drift? |
Changes in proteins by point mutation and selection. |
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why do some lineages of viruses do better overtime? |
Mutates in antigenic site, which is the binding site for immune cells. |
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Give an example of experimental demonstration of antigenic drift in hemagglutinin (HA). |
Serial passage of virus in immunized mice selects for mutated hemagglutinin. |
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Where on the the hemagglutinin will mutations not occur? |
Sialic acid residue binding sight |
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What is antigenic shift? |
Changes in protein via reassortment producing new viruses not covered by annual vaccines, and allows the viruses to jump to new host species. |
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What specie is the reservoir specie for flu type A? |
Waterfowl |
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Where do the most dangerous flu viruses tend to come from? |
Probably waterfowl with some mixing of swine. |
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What is an epitope? |
Binding site for immune cells. |
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What does every pathogen have? |
An epitope |
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Why do antibodies and vaccines lose their effectiveness towards some viruses, like the flu? |
viruses, like influenza, mutate a lot in the region of prime antibody bind to hemagglutinin. |
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What is herd immunity? |
The indirect protection from infection of susceptible members of a population, and protection of the population as a whole, brought about by the presence of immune individuals (generally through vaccination). |
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What are the three categories you divide a population into? |
Susceptible -----> Infectious -----> Recovered (immune). Vaccination goes straight from Susceptible -----> Recovered. |
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What is the fade out point? |
The threshold of herd immunity. |
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What are the herd immunity threshold for these diseases: Measles, chicken pox, polio, smallpox, influenza, and ebola? |
Measles- 90-95% Chicken pox- 85-90% Polio- 85% Smallpox (eradicated)- 80% Influenza- 50% Ebola- 33% |
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When was the "Origin of Species" published? |
1859- 28 years after Darwin's voyage. |
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How old was was Darwin when he embarked on the voyage of the Beagle? |
1831- He was only 22. |
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What are the major themes of "Origin of Species"? |
1. All species living and extinct have descended from one or a few original forms of life. Species shared a common ancestor more recently than more dissimilar species. 2. Theory of Natural Selection. |
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Define Phylogeny: |
Describes evolution history of population/species/genes. |
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What is a cladogram/phylogenetic tree? |
Diagrams of the history similarly to how we think and draw a family tree. |
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What is an outgroup? |
An additional taxon added to root the tree. |
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What is a clade/monophyletic group? |
A group on a phylogeny that contains an ancestor and all its descendants. |
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What is the basic idea behind phylogenetic tree? |
Similar species share more traits. |
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What is the homology? |
The same structure/trait in different organisms due to common ancestry. |
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What is synapomorphies? |
Shared derived characters that are because of a recent ancestor. |
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Why should we focus on synapomorphies? |
1. Synapomorphies identifies branching points during speciation. When populations diverge synapomorphies forms. |
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What is homoplasy? |
Trait similarity Not due to shared ancestry. |
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What are the problems in building trees? |
Homplasy |
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What are two issues contributing to homoplasy? |
1. Some traits are convergent evolution due to similar selection pressures and not due to shared ancestry. 2. Some derived traits can revert to ancestral forms due to selection/mutation - reversal |
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What do cave dwelling-organisms provide an example of? |
Phenotypic regression - A type of reversal. |
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What is troglomorphy? |
Adaptation to cave-dwelling, includes loss/reduction of, decreased metabolism, loss of pigment. |
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What are three basic methods for developing/evaluating trees? |
Parsimony, Distance methods, Maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods |
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What is parsimony? |
Simpler hypotheses preferred to more complicated ones. |
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What is the distance method? |
Minimizes the number of differences in characters between taxa. |
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What is the maximum likelihood and Bayesian method? |
Identifies which tree is most likely to have produced the given character data. |
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What is the soapberry bug study about? |
The study of the evolution of long beaked bug to shorter beaks with the introduction of a new host plant. |
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What are the lessons we get from looking at fossils? |
1. Extinction does occur. 2. Law of succession 3.Transitional forms 4.Change in the Earth's environment over time. |
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What is the Law of succession? |
The correlation between the living and the dead. |
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Give an example of the earth's environment changing over time: |
Burgess Shale site |
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What is evolution? |
Change in allele frequencies in a population over time. |
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What does genetics give us? |
A mechanism for Darwinian natural selection. |
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What is population genetics? |
1. Investigates distribution of alleles in a population and mechanism that cause allele frequency to change over time. 2. Focus is often on a single or very few loci. |
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What is Quantitative genetics? |
1. Investigates continuous traits and their underlying evolution mechanism e.g. height. 2. Traits that are controlled by many loci and the environment. |
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what is a chromosome? |
Threadlike structure with linear sequence of genes |
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What is haploid? Diploid? |
1n and is one set of chromosome. 2n and is two sets. |
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What are genes? |
segments of DNA whose nucleotides code for distinct protein product. |
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About how much of human genome is protein-coding? |
1.2% |
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Most of human genome (50%) is composed of what? |
Mobile genetic elements, some gene coding functional RNA, pseudogenes, regulatory elements. |
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What is an Allele? |
Different versions of the same gene that differ in the nucleotide sequence. |
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What is the genetic locus? |
Specific location of a gene on a chromosome. |
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What is a mutation? |
Any change in the base sequence of DNA, also creates the variation needed for natural selection. |
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What are point mutations? |
Single based substitution |
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What is gene duplication? |
unequal crossing-over |
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Why can gene duplication be important? |
Can lead to evolution of a new gene function. |
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What is a pseudogene? |
A duplicated gene that has no function. |
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What does genome duplication result in? |
Polyploidy |
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What is polyploidy? |
An organism that is more than 2n. |
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What organisms are polyploidy? |
Infrequent in most animals (some species of fish amphibians, and lizards) and most frequent in plants, especially angiosperms. |
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In the introduction to On the Origin of Species, Darwin... |
Apologizes several times for not providing more data. |
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The fact that many fossils of now extinct marsupial mammals are found in Australia best illustrates: |
The law of succession |
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What is more commonly found in genomes? |
Transition and silent |
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In humans and other animals, for any of these mutations to be inherited, they need to be in: |
Gamete |
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Gametes are produced via? |
Meiosis of diploid cells. |
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What happens during meiosis? |
1. Crossing-over occurs 2. Independent assortment of chromosomes to gametes. 3. Gametes unite to form a zygote (2n) with one set of chromosomes from each parent. 4.Once a zygote is formed and starts to divide and grow via mitosis, the genotype for that individual is set. |
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What is crossing-over? |
Homologous chromosomes exchange corresponding segments so resulting chromosomes have mix of maternal and paternal DNA. |
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What is the genotype? |
Genetic constitution/make-up of an individual. |
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What is the phenotype? |
The apparent characteristics of an organism. - result of the genotype and the environment. |
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When did Mendel study garden peas? |
1856 |
