Terminology And Systemic Anatomy

Front 1

Describe the anatomical position.

Back 1

Body is erect (standing or supine). Head/eyes, palms, feet are facing forward, with upper limbs hanging at side.

Front 2

Describe the 3 major anatomical planes.

Back 2

1. MEDIAN (midsagittal): Divides body into right and left halves. SAGITTAL (parasagittal) = plane parallel to median.
2. CORONAL (frontal): perpendicular to median; divides body into anterior and posterior portions.
3. TRANSVERSE (horizontal): divides body into superior and inferior portions.
*OBLIQUE: any plane other than those above

Front 3

Describe functions of bone.

Back 3

1. Support body in erect position.
2. Protect of organs/tissues.
3. Participate in movement (form joints, provide leverage for muscles)
4. House red marrow (hemopoietic elements).
5. Store minerals: especially CALCIUM and PHOSPHATE.

Front 4

Describe developmental classification of bone.

Back 4

1. CARTILAGE (ENDOCHONDRAL) BONES: preformed by cartilage; cartilage ossifies = converted to bone. ex: humerus, most long bones of upper extremity.
2. MEMBRANE BONES: ossify directly from mesenchyme; no intermediate cartilaginous stage.

Front 5

Describe regional classification of the skeleton.

Back 5

1. AXIAL SKELETON: bones that form main axis of body: skull, vertebrae, sternum, ribs.
2. APPENDICULAR SKELETON: bones of appendages, including upper/lower limb proper, pectoral girdle, clavicle, scapula, hip bones.

Front 6

Describe 3 major types of joints.

Back 6

1. FIBROUS JOINTS: Joined by fibrous tissue; allow little or no movement. e.g., sutures of skull.
2. CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS: Bones are joined by cartilage. e.g., IV discs, epiphyseal plates.
3. SYNOVIAL JOINTS: permit free movement at different degrees. Bones joined by joint (articular) capsule. e.g., knee.

Front 7

Describe the architecture of a synovial joint.

Back 7

Bones are united by JOINT(ARTICULAR) CAPSULE (outer fibrous layer lined by serous SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE)enclosing an ARTICULAR CAVITY (a potential space) containing small amount of SYNOVIAL FLUID (secreted by synovial membrane to lubricate/nourish tissues). ARTICULAR CARTILAGE covers articular surfaces of bones (rest is lined with synovial membrane). Periosteum of bones fuses with joint capsule.

Front 8

Define 3 functional classifications of synovial joints. Provide examples.

Back 8

1. UNIAXIAL: moves along one axis; e.g., hinge-joint of elbow allows only flexion/extension.
2. BIAXIAL: allows movement about 2 different axes; e.g., wrist joint allows flexion/extension and abduction/adduction but no rotation.
3. MULTIAXIAL: allows movement about all 3 axes; e.g., shoulder.

Front 9

List types of fibrous joints.

Back 9

1. Sutures of cranium
2. Syndesmosis(-es)
3. Gomphosis (-es) (Dentoalveolar syndesmosis)

Front 10

Describe sutures of cranium.

Back 10

Bones are very close together, interlocking along wavy line or overlapping. No movement. May later ossify.

Front 11

What is a syndesmosis?

Back 11

Partially movable joint; an interosseous membrane (sheet of fibrous tissue), either ligament or fibrous membrane, unites bones. e.g., between radius and ulna.

Front 12

What is a gomphosis?

Back 12

AKA, dentoalveolar syndesmosis. Connects root of tooth to bone of alveolus. Mobility (loose tooth) is pathologic, but microscopic movements give proprioceptive info.

Front 13

Discuss the 2 types of skeletal muscle attachments.

Back 13

1. ORIGIN: end that remains fixed during contraction; usually the proximal end*.
2. INSERTION: end that moves during contraction; usually the distal end*.
*Some muscles can act in both directions under different circumstances.

Front 14

Briefly describe a cartilaginous joint.

Back 14

Articulating structures are united by hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage.

Front 15

List 4 functions of skeletal muscle.

Back 15

1. produce locomotion
2. provide static support
3. give form to body
4. provide heat

Front 16

List 2 types of cartilaginous joints.

Back 16

1. Synchondrosis (primary cartilaginous joint)
2. Symphysis (secondary cartilaginous joint)

Front 17

Describe the 2 main structural components of skeletal muscle.

Back 17

1. FLESHY CONTRACTILE PORTION: belly, or head; fibers shorten upon stimulation to produce movement; rich blood supply; very metabolically active; low tensile strength (77 lbs/sq in)*.
2. FIBROUS COMPONENT: part that attaches to bone; cylindrical = TENDON; flat sheet = APONEUROSIS; not contractile; poor blood supply; low metabolic activity; high tensile strength (18,000 lbs/sq in)*.
*So muscle tear usually happens in fleshy part, not tendon.

Front 18

What is a synchondrosis? Describe an example.

Back 18

AKA, Primary cartilaginous joint. Joined by HYALINE CARTILAGE. Generally temporary joints, such as those present during development. E.g., in long bone, such as femur: EPIPHYSEAL PLATE(cartilage) intervenes between epiphysis (bone) and shaft (bone) is site of bone growth.

Front 19

What is an aponeurosis?

Back 19

Flat, broad sheet of tendons formed by some muscles. Attaches to bone, deep fascia, or another aponeurosis.

Front 20

What is a symphysis? Provide an example.

Back 20

Strong, slightly movable joint united by FIBROCARTILAGE. E.g., intervertebral (IV) discs.

Front 21

List 6 structural categories of synovial joints.

Back 21

1. HINGE
2. PLANE
3. PIVOT
4. CONDYLOID (ELIPSOID)
5. SADDLE
6. BALL AND SOCKET

Front 22

Discuss terms describing movement about 3 axes of synovial membranes.

Back 22

1. FLEXION/EXTENSION: movement around a horizontal axis.
2. ABDUCTION/ADDUCTION: movement around an anterior-posterior axis.
3. MEDIAL/LATERAL ROTATION: movement around a vertical axis.

Front 23

Define flexion/extension.

Back 23

Flexion = decreasing the joint angle (e.g., bending at waist to touch toes; bending the leg). Extension = increasing the joint angle (standing back up; straightening the leg).

Front 24

What is a tubercle?

Back 24

Small, raised eminence. Usually tendon attaches to bone at distinct tubercles.

Front 25

Describe pennate skeletal muscle. List 3 types.

Back 25

"Feather-like" muscle whose fibers run oblique to long axis of the muscle; more fibers than strap muscles, so pennate are stronger. However, pennate fibers are shorter.
1. UNIPENNATE
2. BIPENNATE
3. MULTI-PENNATE

Front 26

Define abduction/adduction.

Back 26

Abduction = away from midline (e.g., spread legs)
**(ABDUCT=to kidnap or take somebody AWAY!)
Adduction = toward midline (e.g., squeeze legs together)

Front 27

Describe strap muscle.

Back 27

Fibers are oriented parallel to the long axis of the muscle. Have longer fibers than pennate muscles (but pennate muscles are stronger because they have more fibers).

Front 28

List 6 types of muscle based on architecture.

Back 28

1. flat
2. pennate
3. fusiform
4. quadrate
5. circular (sphincteral)
6. multi-headed (multi-bellied)

Front 29

Define motor unit.

Back 29

Functional unit of a muscle. Composed of a motor neuron, including its axon, and all the muscle fibers it innervates.

Front 30

Discuss the significance of motor unit size.

Back 30

Size of motor unit varies widely. Smaller number of muscle fibers* = smaller motor unit = fine motor control and less strength.
Larger number of muscle fibers = larger motor unit = gross movement and more strength.
*Motor unit contain as few as 3 muscle fibers!

Front 31

Describe 3 categories of skeletal muscle contraction.

Back 31

1. REFLEXIVE CONTRACTION: automatic activity, including respiratory movements of the diaphragm (may be consciously controlled to some extent) and MYOTATIC REFLEXES (e.g., patellar reflex)
2. TONIC CONTRACTION: slight contraction that does not produce movement or active resistance; present even in "relaxed" muscles; MUSCLE TONE (TONUS) = muscle firmness. Almost always present except in deep sleep, general anesthesia, or loss of innervation.
3. PHASIC CONTRACTION: "active" contraction

Front 32

Describe 4 functional categories of muscle.

Back 32

1. PRIME MOVER (AGONIST): Main muscle responsible for movement. Contracts concentrically, expends the most energy. Sometimes there are two prime movers.
2. FIXATOR: Steadies proximal parts of limb through isometric contraction while movement occurs distally; i.e., stabilize joint.
3. SYNERGIST: Complements action of prime mover.
4. ANTAGONIST: Opposes action of another muscle.

Front 33

List 5 techniques of determining muscle function.

Back 33

1. anatomical method
2. palpation
3. electrical stimulation
4. electromyography
5. clinical method

Front 34

Describe 2 differences in appearances of arteries and veins in lab.

Back 34

1. Tunica media (circumferential smooth muscle wall) of arteries are thicker, more rigid in arteries than in veins. Therefore, arteries often more circular in cross-section; veins tend to collapse on themselves, have flattened appearance.
2. Arteries may appear whiter; veins may appear darker. But there are exceptions!

Front 35

Name two factors responsible for venous return to the heart.

Back 35

1. Negative pressure in thorax during inspiration sucks blood back to heart.
2. Musculovenous pump

Front 36

Describe the musculovenous pump.

Back 36

When muscles (e.g., in lower limbs) contract, they bulge, and the pressure they exert on veins pushes blood back to the heart. Veins of limbs have bicuspid "one-way" valves that prevent blood from flowing back away from the heart.

Front 37

What causes varicose veins?

Back 37

When veins lose elasticity, they become weak and dilate under the pressure of supporting a column of blood against gravity. These veins become swollen, twisted. Valve cusps (valves are incompetent) do not meet or have been destroyed by inflammation; so blood column is uninterrupted, increasing pressure on already weak veins, further dilating them, exacerbating problem.

Front 38

Define anastomosis and collateral circulation.

Back 38

Anastomosis is the joining together of blood vessels (arteries or veins) or nerves. So if one artery is occluded or ligated, alternate COLLATERAL CIRCULATION exists; other arteries supply that tissue. Collateral circulation may be able to expand to meet needs of tissue if main artery occluded, but may take enough time such that cannot handle sudden occlusion or ligation of main artery.

Front 39

Define end artery. What is the significance of an end artery?

Back 39

AKA, ANATOMICAL or TRUE TERMINAL artery. Does not anastamose with other arteries. If end artery ligated/obstructed, tissue it supplies will become necrotic.

Front 40

Define angiography.

Back 40

Radiopaque dye injected into vessel, and vessel then visualized radiographically. Can reveal aneurysm or presence of plaque or buildup in vessel (causes vessel to narrow).

Front 41

What is are the most highly anatomically variable structures.

Back 41

Blood vessels, especially veins.