Taxpayers

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Taxpayers

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Description: Commonly a business structure 1 or 2 stories in height of class 3 construction( exterior firewalls with wooden interior structural members). Their area vary from 20’ x 50’ to areas of whole city blocks, the most common size being approximately 100’ x 100’. They can be built on one or more lots with adjoining structures of greater heights on three sides. Usually single structures commonly sheltering from one to as many as 15 different businesses with weak non-Fire resistive partitions and no Fire stops in the Cocklofts.

Three broad categories:

1. Older type 1920: Built from the turn of the century until the 1920’s. This type is usually one story in height but there are some that have two stories. Some of the older structures have partitions, girders,beams, and columns of wood and may be considered wood frame buildings although most have masonry exteriors. Original ceilings may be tin,nailed directly to the beams or to furring strips. Original lath and plaster and wood ceilings could be covered with tin. If renovated hanging ceilings are installed which create a plenum area for fire travel. Decorative metal cornices found in front of some buildings. If heavy fire in the front the supports of these cornices can be weakened. You can also remove them to access to the Cockloft area.

2. Most prevalent type 1920-1960: They are usually larger in area than the older types and many are 1 tenant occupancies, such as supermarkets, bowling alleys, restaurants, factories. If large area, fire walls may been installed for subdivision of the building. The integrity of these may be questionable because of alterations and openings made in them. The upper termination points of these walls vary. Some end just above or below the ceilings, others at the underside of the roof boards and still others may extend over the roof forming parapet walls. 2 stories in height with various stores on 1st flr and large meeting halls, dancehalls or broken up into small offices and rooms on 2nd flr. Egress from the upper floor may be 1 or more interior stairs or fire escape. Cornices, of the facade type and signs are often attached to the front of the building outside off the brick walls. Removing the cornice or sign in the most case will not provide access to the Cockloft area.

3. Newer type since 1960: Same occupancies/ Structural features as old types except the use of combustible construction material has been reduced. They have steel bar joists to support the floors and roof not wood beams. They are being used more because of lower cost and lighter weight. The newest types the floor and roof may be concrete poured on top of metal decking, which is supported by metal joists. The roof may also be concrete slabs between bar joists or Tiberius material slabs supported in metal channels. All of these surfaces will have a poured pitch and gravel covering.

Mezzanine area: Their Location In tampers will differ, some found in rear, along one side front front to rear or along part of one side. A few have been made in the center. They have probably been added after construction, the load bearing components can be light construction. These supports may be loaded beyond their safe load bearing capabilities. The mezzanine is used for storage of goods but can contain offices ( predominantly in supermarkets and factories). Height of ceilings In mezzanine and area below will be below average. Access may be a small wooden stairs or just a ladder. Very seldom will there be another means of access. Majority of them are not enclosed and there will be a railing at the edge.

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Taxpayers auxiliary fire protection systems

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Fire protection systems: Generally Automatic Sprinkler systems are the the only protection by code. Some case due to variances, sprinklers may only be found in the cellar areas.

Rules for sprinkler protection

1938 code: Area exceeding 10,000 sq ft.

1968 code: Area exceeding 7,500 sq ft.

2008 code-group M-Mercantile: FULL BUILDING-AREA exceeding 12,000 sq ft. Storage of merchandise is in high-piled racks or rack storage arrays

OCCUPANCY WITHIN BUILDING-AREA exceeding 7,500 sq ft or area of any size is located 3 stories above grade or area of any size located in a High Rise building or area of any size contains an unenclosed stair or escalator connecting 2 or more floors.

Summary: Few effective fire protection and building laws have been enacted for taxpayers. Economic considerations and high labor costs necessitate cheap and rapid construction and mitigate any substantial fire resistive design. All taxpayers, regardless of when built, present us with a serious challenge in a heavy fire situation.

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Taxpayers construction

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Cocklofts: The cockloft is the space above the finished ceiling and the underside of the roof sheathing. It usually is a common area over all the store. Can very in height from 4 inches to more than 6ft. A large amount of exposed wood, such as roof boards, bridging and wood lath is present. These factors of wide open area and Harvey fire loading results in rapid fire spread. Fire may entree the Cockloft through recesses, voids and ducts.

Roofs: Most common roof is wood joists covered with either tongue and groove boards or plywood. The roof is then covered with combustible waterproofing material commonly called tarpaper or built up roofing which may be several layers thick. A layer of tin could be found under the tarpaper in old taxpayers. The roof joists may be supported at approximately 20-ft intervals, by exterior brick bearing walls, interior load bearing studded partitions, wood or steel girders supported by steel ally columns or wood columns. The roof may have skylights and scuttle openings, signs, air conditioners and heating units. Inverted raised or reversed roof construction is used to create a pitch to provide drainage. Sometimes an inverted roof is constructed over an existing roof and forms and additional Cockloft.

Trusses: Truss construction is used where large areas, free of roof support columns, are desired. As spans and loads increase, Structural components must increase in size to absorb and transmit to bearing surfaces the stresses of tension and compression. It was made to allow greater spans while minimizing the increase in the size of the spanning members. The truss is made of two major members- the top one is called TOP CHORD and the lower one called the BOTTOM CHORD. Shorter members, called WEBS, connect the top and bottom chords. The WEBS are placed vertically and diagonally, forming triangular configurations with the CHORD members. There are many variations but all are the same. A combination of interdependent components used to span large distances through the use of smaller pieces fastened together. Trusses can be either wood or steel. The open web hoist or steel bar joist. Prevalent in modern taxpayer construction is a light weight parallel chord truss. The type of truss and material used varies with the needs of the particular application.

Wooden bowstring truss: Found in older commercial structures in NYC. It is common in supermarkets, bowling alleys, lumber yards, auto storage garages, and buildings that originally housed such occupancies. Hump-like roof profile where the roof appears to rise up from below the parapet wall to tower above it. The longer the span the higher the bow.

When first designed they thought the tensile strength of wood was strong. But the bottom chords of many bowstring trusses have inadequate tensile strength to support code-prescribed loads. Updated calculations show bowstring truss roofs may only support 40% of load they were originally designed to hold. Can’t hold snow loads.

Due to wind the snow can move and be deeper in one area, particularly behind raised parapet. This off-center unbalanced, concentrated load can create an overload on the trusses.

They can also overload due to latter additions of loads such as accumulation of roofing material, heavier ceiling finishes, new mechanical equipment and conversion of truss space into mezzanines, storage areas, office space.

In older bowstring truss roof buildings, there is a possibility of rotting at the ends of the trusses where they rest on the walls, due to water leaking through the roof covering.

The added live load of firefighters and equipment on a roof can precipitate a collapse. Truss failure has occurred due to the above cause without Fire impingement.

Failure in one truss element can cause a failure of the entire truss. This may pull down a number of trusses, in a domino effect which will cause the entire roof, or large portion, to collapse. Failure can occur in the early stages of Fire.

In older type truss roof buildings, the trusses may be spaces 10-20ft apart with roof beams installed between the trusses to support the roof coverings.

Wood truss fail without warning. The roof doesn’t sag or get spongy. Steel trusses tend to stretch when kissing their strength because of elevated temperatures, but wood tends to snap.

Trusses are composed of smaller and lighter weight members and they span greater distances than the conventional roof beam construction. Fire will affect them more rapidly.

Open web steel joists: Found in modern taxpayer construction, have no fire resistance rating. Fire rating depends upon the ceiling finish and finish roofing. They come in standardized lengths, depths and carrying capacities. They are used to span long distances up to 60ft. They may be covered with various roof decks: solid wood, steel deck, cementitious roof plank (wood fibers chemically processed and pressure bonded with Portland cement) precast concrete or gypsum plank, gypsum concrete (factory controlled mixture of gypsum and wood chips) poured over form boards and steel wire mesh usually 2ft minimum thickness. Note: end joints of planks are staggered and may not end on roof supports. Unprotected open web steel joists are particularly vulnerable to elevated temperatures of a fire and may collapse after 5 or 10min

Additional roof features: I beams protruding above the roof surface or roofs built in step fashion with one store roof slightly higher than another sometimes give the false impression of Fire Division walls. The side walls of such protrusions are made of wood sheathing and are easily detected by striking them with a tool to differentiate them from a masonry wall. They can be opened for inspection or stream operation. A good working knowledge of these features or stream operation. A good working knowledge of these features will allow members on roofs to determine the size and shape of the Fire building for the information of operating forces on the first floor.

Skylights: Some roofs skylights, scuttles and other openings. additional at ceiling level. heavy metal gates, heavy steel plates and electrically charged grids. If any are removed, the supports for these coverings may be of very light weight (sometimes wooden 2x4’s covered with thin sheets of plywood) In a Fire situation these supports will fail much more rapidly than the regular beams. Therefore, caution must be exercised in placing any added weight on these sections.

In some cases heavy steel plates are being used to cover these openings.

Scuttles: Small scuttle covers, possibly with iron ladders to the interior, may also be opened to vent rooms below.

Ventilators or exhaust ducts: Ventilators or exhaust ducts which may vent store areas or the Cockloft are sometimes found on the roof.

Signs: Large display signs on rods or front walls can present a collapse hazard in a well involved structure. Smaller signs attached to the front wall over stores sometimes cover openings into the Cockloft and can be removed for early stream operation into the Cockloft.

WALLS: Exterior bearing walls are constructed of brick, stone, concrete block and mortar. In some cases brick walls are only two courses wide in taxpayers. Differential thermal expansion may cause a wall to bulge (Expanding I beams can easily illusory masonry or stone walls which inherently have little lateral strength. A close watch should be kept on such walls) stone or block may spall due to heat or subsequent stream application, thus reducing the effective load bearing area of the wall.

The stability of the walls depends on the integrity of the roof. It has a monolithic brace which ties the walls together. It holds up the wall by lateral support. If the support is gone it can push out or pull in the walls. Concrete walls hinge at ground level and the whole side or rear wall may stay intact and fall out flat. Brick walls crumble or break as they fall but large sections can be projected a good distance due to impact as the wall hits the ground.

A parapet wall is a continuation of exterior wall, fire wall or party wall above the roof line. The parapet section of the exterior walls may extend around the entire perimeter of a building roof area.

A Hazardous Condition if collapse of front wall. It is often unsupported laterally for a long distance, receiving its support only at the ends where they tie into crosswalks.

The weight of the parapet wall is supported by steel I beams or angle shapes which span the openings for the display windows and entrance doors. Rust formation and normal expansion and contraction of these steel lintels and first action in the parapet, weaken the mortar joints. I beams which support the roof joists often but against the front parapet. An uncontrolled Fire in a remote portion of the taxpayer or in the cockloft may be heating these I beams causing their expansion and steadily pushing the parapet outward.

Stability of masonry walls depends on the load being concentrated in a vertical direction through the wall. Any degree of tilting which causes this load to be eccentric to the vertical may cause collapse. A close watch must be kept for parapet walls out of plumb or bowed. A member stationed at the corner can sight along this wall to detect such conditions but this may be difficult due to smoke conditions and the numerous signs and awnings present.

Operations within the stores or operations at the front of the store such as forcible entry, cellar pipe or hand lines, may have to be stopped because of the condition of the parapet wall.

A long section of this wall often remains intact as the wall toppled onto the sidewalk. Members have been killer or injured by susceptible wall collapses.

Interior partition walls between stores are usually of wood stud construction, with plaster or Sheetrock covering, and are usually firestopped at the floor and the veil by wood sills and plates. The plaster or Sheetrock provides longitudinal rigidity for these partition walls between the front and rear walls and roof. Removal of large sections of plaster will weaken this bracing.

Canopies or marquees: A canopy or marquee which is cantilevered over the sidewalk can act as a lever on the parapet wall pulling down a long section of it. These extensions are generally supported by cables, steel tie rods or steel beams, which go through the wall and are attached inside the building, probably to combustible members in the Cockloft. A fire in the Cockloft can weaken these attachments or supports m, causing sudden collapse of the canopy or marquee and a long section of the parapet wall, without any warning. Six F.F. Lost their lives in the collapse of a such a marquee and parapet wall at a furniture store fire in 1956. Marquess are hollow boxes which can fill up with run-off water at a fire operation due to use of heavy streams. A 12’x24’ marquee, 4’ deep when filled could have 35 tons of water. In effect, a hanging swimming pool. Marquees are required by the building code to have drainage facilities. Many have been found to have roof type gutters and down spouts blocked with debris, rubbish and subnet balls.

I beams: Exposed I beams are commonly used in taxpayers to support roof and floor joists. They absorb heat depending on fire temperature, extent for fire and weight and size of the beam. An average 50ft long steel beam heated to its length to 970 F will extend 4inches. At 1000 F a 100ft long beam will extend 9 1/2inc. It is this process of expansion in length that causes exterior walls to be pushed out so quickly at a taxpayer operation.

These I beams are often built into side or rear masonry walls, or butt the front parapet wall, where they are supported by masonry protest or iron columns at the storefronts. A close watch must be key for walls out of plum or bowed m, or cracks appearing in the mortar joints due to I beams forcing bearing or parapet walks outward. If the I beams are restrained from expanding (an unlikely occurrence at roof level in taxpayers), they will buckle. Sometime an I beam will push our a small section of bricks and allow fire to extend to exposures.

When these steel beams are heated from 1000F to 1500F, their yield strength drops and start to fail. This Temp can be reached in 5 to 10min at a fire and it is only matter of time at uncontrolled fire( 30min for smaller beam sections) until these beams can be heated beyond their strength limitations.

Test have shown cooling a steel member will cause it to regain strength and load carrying ability. If the beam has already sagged under the weight of floors or roof, F.F. Should not be allowed in the possible collapse zone, whether these beams are cooled or not the steel will contract to its original length as it is cooled and if the beam has sagged, this shortening may pull the end of the beams off their supports or twist the beam allowing the joists to drop.

Columns: Columns in taxpayers can be made from wood, cast iron, lally columns (steel or cast iron) or masonry piers which support the beams. Cast iron columns are unpredictable and fail, on the average, in about 30min in Fire endurance test. Some columns fail sooner than cast iron columns. The failure of a column is generally more serious than the failure of a girder or beam. The failure of a column in the clear can cause the subsequent collapse of the floors and roof. coating or spraying the columns with fire proofing material on new type construction is often a haphazard process, because of shoddy workmanship and on-the-job alterations made after application.

Suspended ceilings: As many as 2 or 3 dropped ceilings may be found in a particular store. These suspended ceilings offer their own collapse potential when loads with water or weakened by fire and are sometimes blown down by a backdraft in the Cockloft. They are suspended by light wood strips, steel wire or steel bars, all of which are quickly affected by fire. Special care must be exercised when these ceilings often fail and fall in one piece over the entire area of a store. Besides inflicting injury, these ceilings can trap members beneath, if they fall intact.

These ceilings should be punched with a hook for water detection, to check construction and fire conditions. Multiple layers of tin, Sheetrock or tiles may have been affixed together on supports which were not intended to carry such weight. A slight amount of water or fire can cause failure and the weight of such a ceiling increases chance of entrapment and injury. When initially pulling suspended ceilings members should be in a safe area in case of total failure.

When pulling Sheetrock ceilings, large pieces often hinge at one side as they swing down and can inflict injury if they come down edge first.

Long ceilings ducts often have a minimum of supporting ties and chain reaction can pull the entire duct down. They may be sandwiched between hanging ceilings or suspended beneath them. Lighting fixtures offer another hazard as they may swing down if the support breaks at one end.

Floors: flooring can vary in taxpayers. The most common type floors are tongue and groove boards or plywood, supported by wood floor joists.

Heavy terrazzo or concrete is sometimes placed over wood hoist floor construction, an exceptionally hazardous condition. A fire in the cellar may weaken floor supports with little evidence of heat advance of cellar lines or use of cellar pipes and distributors. Sudden failure due to weight on the floor is possible.

Paneling under display windows at street fronts can sometimes be removed to offer ventilation and stream operation points for cellar fires. The flooring under the raised display platform is sometimes omitted behind these panels. In newer type taxpayer slab construction, concrete floors are prevalent on ground level with no basements or cellars in the buildings.

Cellar areas: Cellar areas are often divided into a maze of storage spaces. The layout often does not necessarily conform to the store layout. One occupancy may use a large section of the cellar with openings through partitions, while other occupancies may use smaller areas or none at all.

Cellar ceilings are required to be fire retarded but the plaster covering may be deficient. Partition walks between cellars are usually of combustible or flimsy construction and hoist channels at cellar ceilings are often not firestopped allowing fire, combustible gas and smoke extension from cellar to cellar.

ACCESS TO CELLAR: outside sidewalk trap doors in front of the store give access to wooden, iron or masonry stairs, straight iron ladders and chutes or conveyors for stock delivery. The chutes, when not in use, may be folded against the wall alongside the cellar stairs, After units have been committed to cellar operations down such stairs, these chutes can fall, covering the stairs. This will make it difficult to evacuate the cellar in an emergency.

Outside cellar stairs are usually found in the rear of taxpayers. When there are several stores in the building, these stairs may lead to a passageway along the rear cellar wall from which can be gained to the various storage areas.

Outside sidewalk or interior elevators. Interior open stairs, stairs covered with trapdoors or enclosed in light walls. Interior openings for chutes and conveyors. Windows to cellars and basement in taxpayers are usually below grade in depressed areas that are covered with gratings. In the older type taxpayers, the flooring of the first floor may not be extended under the raised front window display area. By removing the paneling under these widows an opening for ventilation and water application can be gained.

CELLAR CONTENTS: Stock for the various stores, which may include flammable, fast burning or poisonous materials, and pressurized containers, all of which are hazardous. Large amounts of stock piled to the ceiling with little aisle space.

Refrigeration machinery and piping. Walk-in refrigerated areas. Heating furnace rooms and oil storage tanks. Electrical supply entrance points with panel boxes and large amounts of wiring. Gad supply with gas meters and piping.

Security Doors: As a result of increased burglary and vandalism incidents in the past years, store owners now provide greater security for their premises. Typical of these installations are the familiar metal overhead rolling doors which cover the entire store or building front. Previously these were only found on some commercial and industrial occupancies. The owners now use extensive and strong means for securing such doors in the closed position. It is common to find six case hardened padlocks securing one of these doors. The locks defy our conventional methods for forcing them open, and they must be cut with a power saw or a torch. The weight that is added to the front walls, especially when these doors are in the open position, can cause the lintel over the store front to fail and the wall and door assembly may fall during a fire.

STORE FRONTS cover by overhead doors have presented the following problems:

A Delayed discovery of the fire causing:

1 Greater severity of fire upon arrival with possible extension to: The entire floor area of the store. Other stores in the building through the concealed spaces of ceilings, partitions and Cocklofts. Upper floors by burning through floors, and vertical arteries. Exposures when the fire vents itself.

2 Possible early collapse in parts of the structure. 3 Possible of a smoke explosion (backdraft) when is made, causing a collapse with resulting injuries to members and fire involvement of nature structure.

B. Delay in operation late due to the following: 1 Difficulty in determining the exact location of the fire. 2 Time consumed in gaining entry. 3 water application and ventilating operation delays. 4 Examination for fire extension and stopping first spread. 5 Need for special tools to gain entry, power saws, torches 6 The bottom bar of some overhead doors, when they are closed, may rest on the sidewalk entrance doors to the cellar. 7 where a store covers a large area or there are a number of stores in a building all with overhead doors, it may be difficult to determine the exact location of the entrance door or doors to the stores. Overhead signs might give a clue. 8 These doors may cover the exterior entrance to the upper floors and also flush type fire department sprinkler Siamese connections. 9 Extensive and punishing operations requiring additional units.

Doors in the rear will be equipped with many sting security devices, such as the same type overhead doors as are found in the front. Conventional door will have 2 or 3 strong door locks, plus metal across the inside of the door with strong anchor supports, which securely attached to the walls, and the doors.

Problems with overhead type doors that depend on spring tension to counter balance their weight will be encountered in structure as well as trucks. At fires in warehouses, garages, heat can cause springs t loose tension. If these doors start down start down without the counterbalance of fully tensioned springs they will com down with tremendous force. Doors used in residential installations range in weight from 150-400pnds. Larger commercial occupancies will have much larger and heavier doors.

A When the spring tension is gone, motor or hoist devices usually will not prevent the door from coming down hard one it starts down. In addition, at more advanced fires the steel track on either side can warp pulling, out the rollers and allowing the door to drop flat.

B When dealing with doors that may have been affected by fire the following is suggested: 1 Avoid standing in door path. 2 Secure door from roiling by clamping vise grip pliers in track under roller or place a ladder as a stop. 3 Check the integrity of overhead track as soon as conditions permit. 4 Attempting to force large overhead doors that have lost spring tension will require lifting dead weight and normally may be futile. When the door can be opened electrically it should be serviced immediately. 5 Treat every open overhead door for what it is- a heavy overhead hazard like air conditioners, machinery trucks.

Exit Facilities: In Both the older and newt taxpayer, exit facilities are poor. A In the smaller type store establishments there is usually only one means of entrance and exit, that is the main store opening.

B In the larger type occupancy (supermarkets) there are two means of egress. The customers, however are ware of the main entrance only, since the secondary exit is usually remote or obscure. The entrance may consist of only two doors to as many as six doors. Some of the newer types are automatic in operation, opening inward and outward for the customers use.

C Depending on Access, use and location, there may be a second means of egress in the rear of the store from a storage, utility or deliver area. This exit is not readily available or accessible for public use.

D In supermarket and discount type store occupancies the obstruction of exit accessibility can be anticipated due to the presence of checkout counters, stock displays and shopping carts.

New Type Construction: The new type of construction (supermarkets) is much better than the traditional or older type from a fire protection view point.

Many of the newer type taxpayers are built on a concrete slab foundation, which removes a major problem of cellar and basement fires. The oration walls are usually better constructed due to use of the steel and aluminum stud system which employs gypsum blocks and shearing as a bearing or no bearing wall system.

The roof system will remain a major fire fighting factor because, for the most part, the roofs are constructed of Bar Joists, light weight steel or flat wood trusses. these features , and how they behave under fire conditions, have been covered under Truss Roofs.

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Taxpayers Hazards

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Life hazards: Taxpayers cover such a broad spectrum it is impossible to evaluate the life Gaza’s in a general statement.

Occupants: A Life hazard will vary with the type of occupancies found in individual buildings.

B The life hazard in a one story taxpayer may present a problem during the day since occupants could be trapped in the rear areas and cellars of these stores. During night hours these premises, for the most part, are unoccupied but the possibility of some workers being in the premises must not be overlooked.

C Life hazard in two story taxpayers can be serious problem on the second floor. Occupancies such as restaurant, private clubs, dance halls. Open to large number of people may be found on the upper floor.

D The second story of some taxpayers is divided into many small office or business spaces. These will contain the working occupants and transient occupants. The latter will be unfamiliar with the means of egress. Security measures may also be a factor effecting means of egress.

Collapse: In assessing the possibility of a structural collapse, Consideration must be given to the type of construction involved in the fire. The intensity of the fire and the time that the structural members have been burning or subjected to the heat of the fire.

Though the IC may have a through knowledge of the reasons why buildings collapse and may anticipate or prevent such a collapse l, there are occasion when the building will collapse suddenly with little to no warning.

The IC, operations chief, Sector and group supervisors at a fire must draw on their knowledge and experience to detect the warning signs of collapse as early as possible and vacate the affected structure in sufficient time.

The following may be causes of collapse during fire operations in taxpayers:

A Backdrafts blowing out walls or floor. B Weakened and burned out Structural members. C Heating of unprotected structural members resulting in: 1 Expnasion: walls pushed out columns out if plumb. 2 loss of strength and failure to support: Girders, beams and columns being twisted out of shape due to excessive heat and in turn causing floor joists to lose their bearing support and fall free.

D Accumulation of a large volume of water on a floor or in a ceiling. E Presence of water absorbent materials such as rags, paper, clothing, which increase floor load when wet and which may push out walls by expansion from the absorbed water. F Impact load: An object such as a gas heater falling from the ceiling, or a firefighter jumping onto a roof or floor which has been weakened by fire may be enough to cause collapse. An impact load had a much greater effect than the same weight carried as a static (stationary) load. G Vibration or movement in or near a weakened building. H Water, ice or snow loads on the roof.

Some of the warning signs that will signal a potential structural collapse during firefighting operations are: A Heavy body of fire which has been burning out of control for 20min or more particularly in a large open floor area. B Walls leaking smoke or water. C Wall or columns out of plumb. D Unsupported walls. E Sagging or bulging walls. One cubic foot of brickwork weighs about 100pnd. Multiply this by expected area of walls collapse and we are dealing with a vast total weight. F Cracks in exterior walls. G Movement in or on any floor or the roof. H Rumbling noises or heavy puffs or smoke. I Crakiling or groaning noises which may indicate strain being placed on structural members. J Inability to make successful headway against a heavy fire condition within 20min into the operation at the fire. K Presence of heavy equipment or signs on the roof. These are examples of static loads. They pose especially dangerous collapse potential when their supporting structural members are subject to heavy fire conditions. L Heavy floor loading. Floor loads vary with the occupancies. Display cases loaded with merchandise or the presence of heavy stock or equipment such as ice boxes, freezers, and counter must be taken into account. M Spongy or soft feeling as you walk on the roof.

Hazardous Materials: Whether a taxpayer is a single or multi-occupancy structural, many and varied hazardous materials may be present that can be danger to the operating forces.

By looking at the occupancy signs or through knowledge gained during building inspection, units should be aware of the presence of hazardous materials. This wil alert them to the precautions that must be taken before starting operations.

Some occupancies containing hazardous materials are: A Drug stores. The presence of combustible, explosive and flammable materials, which if mixed with each other, or if water is applied or if exposed to the heat of a fire, may unleash poisonous or corrosive fumes or create an explosion or an explosive atmosphere.

B Paint stores. they present the problems of various combustibles or flammable such as paints,Lacquers, varnishes in containers of various sizes.

C Supermarkets, they have many different aerosol sprays, refrigerants, compressed cylinders, lye in containers and other corrosives and caustic.

D Bakeries. They have large ovens. The potential for extensive gas leaks from broken or burned away piping presents the potential for a highly combustible atmosphere and a gas explosion.

E Swimming pool supply stores. They have large stocks of oxidizing agents which in the presence of fire and limited water supply pose the possibility or rapid fire involvement and the release of gases such as chlorine.

F Smoke shops prevalent in many areas of the city. Various drug paraphernalia are commonly store and sold out of these shops. Among the substances stores and sold are: ether in pint bottles, small butane cylinders (packed in case) and in some cases acetone in small bottles. Most of the stores have took down security doors, but can be identified by advertising signs denoting then as Smoke shops. It is recommended that units encountering fires in smoke shops stretch 2 1/2 line and proceed with extreme causation. Consideration should be given to knocking down the fire from sidewalk are before entry is attempted.

Backdrafts: A backdraft, smoke explosion or hot air explosion is the ignition and rapid combustion of a mixture of flammable gas or dust and air which flashes back through openings around the fire area.

A Three basic factors necessary for ordinary combustion are also necessary for a backdraft: 1 Combustibles 2 oxygen 3 heat

B Waring signs of a potential backdraft: 1 Reversal of air, pulling smoke back into a smoke filled opening. 2 glass windows stained with smoke condensation and pulsating from the pressure of the fire. 3 Color of smoke varies according to the materials burning and the make-up of flammable gases that are being produced. Dense black smoke indicates the lack of oxygen and large quantities of free carbon and carbon monoxide gas. Other colors of smoke associated with a backdraft are dirty brown, yellow brown and gray yellow.

C Factors that influence the severity of the backdraft are: 1 Type of gases, their temperature, pressure and make up. 2 size and location of the areas involved. 3 Type and size of opening made by the Fire Deployment. 4 Proximity of openings in relation to the fire. 5 amount of turbulence in the building caused by the direction and velocity of the wind and hose streams directed in the building.

D When a Fire burns within a structure, particularly a sealed or closed occupancy and the fire is unable to vent itself to the outer air, the available air supply within the structure is used up quickly. Since very tighter the building or area are particularly vulnerable, although Backdrafts can occur in any part of a structure.

E Various amounts of gaseous combustibles are produced and drawn upward into the upper portions of a structure by the draft. Due to convection currents these combustible gases are suspended in the upper atmosphere of the fire area and throughout the structure.

F It must be remembered that in a high heat conditions, combustible gases and highly heated contents are now present in the structure. All that is missing is a source of air or oxygen to create and explosive fire. A room or fire area requires only 25 percent of its space to contain the explosive mixture for the entire area to possibly explode. The entire area could explode when firefighters enter to search and allow fresh air to enter with them.

G Since there is no way of Determine the exact gas and air conditions that exit, regard these accumulations of smoke and gas as dangerous.

H The Presence of Smoke and the force of it issuing from cornices, scuttles, skylights, Windows, doors or other openings may some indication of the fire location and its intensity.

I Heat conditions due to hot spots on the roof walls,doors, or windows may indicate fire location and its intensity.

J When units arrive, conditions are favorable for a backdraft unless the building is properly opened-up

K The proper procedure is to open the roof or area directly over the fire. This allows the hot gases to move upward through the opening away from the fire. These gases may ignite and vent to the outer atmosphere. This is one of the most effective methods of protecting firefighters from the effect of a backdraft. Even if a backdraft occurs after the roof has been vented the explosion will be diverted upward, out of the roof opening away from the firefighters advancing the hoseline.

I If horizontal ventilation is performed at lower levels prior to roof venting, the chances of a backdraft explosion are greatly increased. There will be a momentary out rush of smoke followed almost immediately by an in rush of fresh air. The reversal could be accompanied by a peculiar roar or whistle of great force. This air sweeps towards the fire area and when it reaches the edge of the glowing embers there will be an explosion and the entire store or area will burst into flames and flash back or vent through this opening.

M After roof venting has been accomplished, entry may be forced at the lower level and lines advanced to extinguish the fire. Depending on conditions, it may be preferable to vent the front windows and allow the gases to ignite prior to entry for search and extinguishment of the fire.

N An alternative to roof venting although not as effective, is the use of a hose stream. Before entering a room or area that exhibits signs of an explosive atmosphere, a charged hoseline should be positioned near the entrance. Initially firefighters should be protected by taking a flanking position or by the reach of the shore stream. The hoseline should be immediately discharged into the fire area when the fire area is opened-up. Taking this action before firefighters and outside air enter a burning, confined, potentially explosive fire area, may allow the water stream to break up the explosive atmosphere. The water can cook a potentially explosive atmosphere.

Length of time the fire has been burning: A fire in its incipient staged can usually be extinguished with a direct attack and in most cases presents no problem to firefighters forces.

An indication that a fire may have been cooking for some time prior to receipt of an alarm by this department, is an alarm received I the early morning hours, after the occupancy had been closed since the night before or longer. This calls for a more careful assessment of a plan of action before the commitment of forces since the factors of collapse or backdraft.

Arson: In recent years the number of arson related fires has increased significantly and must be considered a possible factor.

The means and methods of the arsonist are many. They range from the very simple to highly sophisticated.

Members must be aware of the possibility of the presence of combustible and flammable liquids which may be used to start and accelerate fires.

Advancing lines deep into large area stores or cellars: Units should be aware that when advancing in these areas, heat and fire may be building up and passing over their heads.

It is advisable to post a lookout at the top of a cellar stair or outside cellar entrance to observe theses conditions. Units advancing under the protection of a line may be unaware of this heat build up and fire may break out behind them.

In large areas or cellars it is advisable to have a backup or protection line in place for this contingency.

Advancing in a maze of aisle, stock may fall due to fire damage or water weakened containers, blocking exits and covering hose. This may cause injury to and for orientation of members.

Cellar entrances may have chutes or coasters used for delivery, turned on their sides. Care must be exercised that these are secure and don’t fall onto the stairs after members have entered same. In the enemy of the need for a hasty exit they may impede egress.

Units advancing lines must check for floor and ceiling stability, particularly in areas of heavy fire, when floor or ceiling supports have been weakened by fire which has been extinguished.

Do not bunch up. Spread out along a line to lessen floor loads in a central area and limit the injury potential in the event the structure fails.

Fire extension: Horizontal spread: A via common Cockloft. B Through flimsy partitions. C Between the beams in ceilings. D Via hanging ceilings. E Via ducts-Air Conditioning, heating, vent ducts. F Butted joists. G Common ceiling. H I beams. I Party walls.

Vertical Spread: A Via ducts. B Via pipe recesses. C Through ceilings. D Via concealed spaces between furred plaster and brick walls. E Via opens stairs or trap-doors. F Via voids. G Convection- mushrooming at upper levels. H Shafts-light and ventilation shafts from interior bathrooms and offices. I Stock conveyor belts and chutes from cellars.

Front 5

Taxpayers Fire Operations

Back 5

General: All members shall comply with the provisions of firefighting Procedures, Volume 4, Book 1, Chapter 1 titled safety team. When giving assignments, the Officer on duty shall ensure members are remained of their designations as safety team members. These members must be aware that Designation as safety team members. These members must be aware that this designation is based on their units order of arrival at the box and will change as additional units arrive.

It is well to remember that the value of the structure and its contents is rapidly deteriorating along with the structural stability at an uncontrolled Fire.

Once fire has gained headway in a taxpayer, it is difficult to prevent it from involving the entire building. It will spread with amazing rapidity from store to store, through the many vertical and horizontal arteries to all parts of the structure.

If the fire is not brought under early control, a heavy loss to structure and contents may be expected, a partial or entire structural collapse may occur. The fire may extend to exposure, and both civilians and firefighters may be injured.

All horizontal and initial vertical ventilation tactics must be controlled, communicated and coordinated by the Ladder company Officer. Ventilation at the roof and forcible entry at the street level must be coordinated to help assure prevention of a back draft and quick extinguishment of the fire.

If the roof requires cutting, cut early while it is still strong and fire extension is still limited. Store windows should be removed entirely when necessary for effective interior operations.

Have adequate forces on hand. The typical taxpayer weakens rapidly under heavy fire conditions and an early forceful attack permits effective interior and roof operations. If this attack is delayed the fire may force a perimeter defensive attack, virtually conceding loss of the building and contents.

Communications: Verbal communications at fires must be prompt, clear, concise and complete. I’m reporting information from a remote location to the Incident Commander of the Fire the following outline will serve as a guide as to what kind of information is of value.

A Building: 1 Dimensions: width, height. 2 Features: windows, doors,extensions, courts. 3 Occupancy: life hazards, contents.

B Fire: 1 Condition: light, medium, heavy. 2 Flame: location, height, push,travel. 3 Smoke: heavy,light,push,ready to light up.

C Exposures: Where, What, how bad, floor above fire. D Number of Units: on the scene, units working, location,number of lines. E Actions taken. F Actions in progress. G Conclusions: will hold, need help, can supply help.

H Additional: 1 Dangerous Conditions. 2 Things the Incident Commander cannot see. 3 Incorrect actions by other units.

Only that which is important and evident in a particular situation should be given to the Incident Commander. Any condition or change which would affect the outcome of operations or the structural stability of the building, however, must be reported of the Incident Commander.

The Incident Commander receives information from many sectors of the fire area while continually evaluating conditions, and may change strategy or tactics based on this information.

When the Incident Commander requests information, answer as promptly as possible, informing him of conditions in you cannot supply the information or accomplish a task, say so. The officer may seek the information elsewhere or change strategy and tactics.

Members and unit operating under sector/Group supervisor or a branch director shall report to their supervisor or director who will evaluate the information and keep the Incident Commander informed of all developments.

Fire travel in taxpayers: As a fire develops, the fire, heat, smoke and gases generated spread horizontally and vertically, They take path of least resistance. They will fill every void and crevice in the structure of they are prevented an escape to the outer air.

In the cellar, the floor joists have the ceiling attached directly to the bottom of the joists, or furring strips are attached at right angles to the joists, and the ceiling attached to the furring A fire originating in the cellar has a strong probability of entering the bays between the joists. If this occurs, the fire will travel the length of the joists.

As the bay becomes occupied by the fire and the gases of combination, and their horizontal travel is blocked, they will bank down and move into the adjoining bay. This process will recur until all bays are filled. The void created by the furring strips between the beams and the ceiling accelerates this fire spread. The same thing occurs when fire enters a ceiling on the first floor of a two story taxpayer or when it enters the ceiling of a taxpayer where the roof boards are nailed to the roof beams, such as in the standard.

In the inverted roof the situation is different. The roof beams create the original ceiling level. Roof supports of 2inch x 4inch short studs are connected to the roof beams and extended upward, where they connect to a roof grid to which the roof boards are nailed. This presents a miniature lumber yard. It also provides much fuel for a fire to feed on and a large open area for quick fire spread.

A The inverted roof may be pitched from the front to rear. Front and rear to the center, or from the front, rear, and sides to the center. How the roof is pitched is usually determined by the configuration of the building and the position of the damage facilities. In the most cases the high portion of the Cockloft is at the front of the building.

B if fires enters the Cockloft at the high point or front of the building, our fire problem is less severe than if it has entered into the Cockloft at the rear. The reason is that fire does not burn quickly from a high point to a lower area.

C Since most fires originate in the rear of the first floor where utilities, storage, and services are located, this is the area from which the fire usually extends to the Cockloft. Generally, this is the lowest portion of the Cockloft. The pitch of the roof (front to rear) allows the fire to spread rapidly to the higher Cockloft area.

D The standard (flat) roof have little or no pitch. If it is pitched, it will be from the front to the rear.

Ventilation: Ventilation is controlled and coordinated removal of heat and smoke from a structure, replacing the escaping gases it’s fresh air. This exchange is bi-directional with heat and smoke exhausting at the top and air flowing in toward the fire at the bottom. The fire will pull the additional air flow into the building towards the fire which can intensify the fire conditions. This exchange can occur by opening doors, windows or roof structures. Coordinated and controlled ventilation will facilitate quicker extinguishment and limit fire spread.

The ventilation goals are: A To coordinate as much as possible, the opening of a fire building with the application of water on the seat of the fire.

B To prevent further spread of the fire: If ventilation is not first instituted at the roof prior to entry at the lower level, a backdraft could result and cause total involvement and loss of the structure. Also, if ventilation is started before charged hoseline a are ready to advance on the seat of the fire, the fire could spread rapidly throughout the building.

C The proper application of venting procedures will result in a reduction in water used, less water damage, and a more efficient operation. Note: It must be understood that ventilation will increase the intensity of the fire if it is not carefully coordinated with engine hoseline operations.

Due to configuration of the building, the limited openings on the sides or the rear, and the numerous subdivisions and enclosures, horizontal ventilation may be very difficult. At times, it may be attained by the use of a horizontal opening in conjunction with a remote vertical opening. In most of out operations, we employ a combination of both types of ventilation.

Generally, vertical openings are made at the roof level. Scuttles, skylights or covers of former skylights that are located over or near the main body of fire should be opened first. Openings that are made remote from the fire area may cause the fire to spread. These openings should not be made when such will jeopardize life or endanger any exposure, unless protective measures are taken.

The roof cut for vertical Ventilation must be large enough to cause the bulk of the heat, smoke and gases being produced by the fire to vent in that direction and away from the advancing hose line. An insufficient vent opening will cause the heat, smoke and fire to back up and vent toward other available flow path openings, including the entrance opening used by the advancing hoseline. A hole 8x8ft, where possible, is recommended. Methods for cutting and cuts.

Make sure, when cutting ventilation holes in the roof, scuttle cover or former skylight coverings, that ceilings or other sealed spaces below such openings are pushed down and opened to permit the exit of heat, smoke, gases and fire to the open air.

If difficulty is encountered in opening the returns of scuttles or skylight openings, it may be quicker and more practical to make Examination holes for ventilation around the openings. If trenching is to be implemented, leave the returns in place where the skylights are to be used as an effective trenching boundary.

At times, as the roof cut is made and pulled, Members may be driven back by the heat or fire and be unable to complete the opening. If this occurs additional openings must be started and completed. The choice of locations must be made by the Roof Sector Supervisor based on his size-up or orders from the IC

A review of roof construction features, along with an understanding of fire travel in taxpayers, is essential in assessing the situation and making decisions.

The use of multiple saws, sufficient Hooke and staffing are an absolute necessity, if roof ventilation is to be quickly and effectively accomplished.

The immediate ventilation and cutting of an effective size hole on the roof calls for 2 saws and 4 members on the roof. Additional staffing with proper equipment should be assigned to this position as soon as possible. A Roof Sector Supervisor must supervise roof operations when more than one power saw is working on the roof.

Additional ladder companies should be special called to the scene of the operation as needed. The first arriving officer should initiate this, if necessary. Consideration should be given to whether tower ladder is responding or should be called. The need for, and use of four ladder companies at a serious taxpayer fire is not unusual.

A Roof Sector Supervisor should be assignees as early as possible to supervise roof operations. This could be a Chief or a company Officer as designated by the IC.

Roof conditions must be determined and monitored constantly. Joists and roof boards may be burned away or weakened to the extent that added weight may cause the roof or sections of it to collapse. In most cases, a roof fails section by section. The roof joists supported by I beams and girders within a section collapse when any portion within that section fails. How and when they fail depends upon the extent, duration, intensity and direction of fire travel.

Engine companies should be aware of the use of fog patterns on the FT-2 tip to relieve an area of smoke and heat. Engines must remover to adjust the fog pattern to the width of the opening and stand back 4-5ft while operating.

Ventilation support groups are strategically located throughout the city. At cellar fires in taxpayers, these units should be utilized for ventilation. Judicious use of both fog nozzles and positive pressure ventilation fans, can help clear large areas of carbon monoxide, smoke and heat when conditions for natural venting are difficult or restricted by weather conditions.

Numerous building and occupancies make use of mechanical systems for ventilation, air conditioning and heat supply. These systems may serve one or more tenants or the entire structure. It may be necessary to shut down any or all of these systems to prevent fire, smoke and heat spread. Such systems may also be use to remove smoke from the fire area or other portions of the building and introduce a fresh air supply for the operating forces.

Cutting Roofs and Floors: At taxpayers fires, nothing affects the outcome of an operation as much as ventilation. The key is cutting and pulling procedures used to proved the be escape for the fire, heat, smoke and gases. Trenching is also an important factor but in most cases not to the degree of the ventilation cuts.

To be successful, the roof operating forces must fully understand what is to be cut, where to cut, when to cut, how much to cut, why they are cutting and the priority and sequence of cutting.

Cutting procedures must be well planned to be effective. Provisions must be made so that the initial cuts do not hinder or prevent the making of subsequent cuts, which might be critical.

It must be stressed that ultimate purpose of the ventilation and cutting procedures is to allow the units to move their hose lines in and accomplish extinguishment of fire. Their success depends on your success.

A word of caution: These Procedures must be adjusted to meet the existing conditions. The principle of roof ventilation at a taxpayer fire, where and aggressive interior attack is employed, is a requisite. The technique is variable.

The direction and force of the wind is often a critical factor in Determining the plan of action in cutting the roof. The most effective and quickest cutting will be accomplished if you work with the wind at your back. Plan so that the first and subsequent cuts are made with this in mind. If cuts are made on the leeward side of the initial cut, you may be unable to complete the necessary roof ventilation and be driven off the roof. Units operating below will be unable to advance and extinguish the fire. This may deter interior operations and cause the emphasis to be placed on exterior operations.

During cutting operations consideration must be given to the following: A Location and extent of fire. B Smoke, gases and heat in the Cockloft or other portions of the building. C The location and seriousness of the exposure problem. D Condition of the roof and escape routes. E Wind direction and velocity.

The six and location of roof openings will depend on the fire conditions, staffing, and equipment.

Roof cuts should be made in one operation. They should be lighted off in one piece of possible. If this is not possible, then the roof covering should be removed first, followed by removal of the roof boards. All obstructions below the cut should be removed or opened by pushing down the roof through such openings.

Generally, wood joists run the short side of a building or occupancy particularly in the order taxpayers where the occupancies within a taxpayer have frontages not exceeding twenty feet.

Wood hoist beams are usually spaced 16inches on center. Wood flooring and roof boards when nails directly to roof beams are nailed at right angles to these joists.

In most cases, you will not know for certain how the joists run until a ceiling is pulled, or floor or roof boards are removed and you can visually observe them.

It cannot be assumed, once an initial determination is made on the run of joists, that all joists throughout the building run the same. In most cases joists will run in the same direction, but there are exceptions.

When rear extensions were added to taxpayers, it was not unusual to utilize a larger girder to tie the older section in with the newer section. This at times made the rear portion of the added roof higher than the older portion. Depending on the span to the rear lot line and the distance to the supporting beams and columns, the joists would be laid on their supports either as those in the older portion or at right angles to them. In addition to creating a higher portion or raised roof in this area, it also creates a larger void in the ceiling below. This factor should be recognized and appreciated when considering fire travel and venting the roof area of taxpayers.

Cutting a hole 8ftx8ft is recommended in providing ventilation at the roof. In a serious fire, instability, heat, or smoke conditions may make the cutting of this primary vent hole impossible, delaying overall effective ventilation.

When it is not possible to make an 8ftx8ft cut in a serious Cockloft Fire or whet a heavy heat and smoke condition exits in the Cockloft, the largest opening possible be made.

On the standard roof where the roof boards are nailed to the roof joists, the rectangular cuts are preferable. When they are not made initially, they should be made subsequently when the run of the joists has been determined. The rectangular cuts will necessitate pulling sections of the roof that are nailed to either four or five joists. The rectangular cut provide for maximum ventilation of bays between joists for the total area cut. Subsequent cuts should be made with consideration of venting additional bays and areas.

Care shall be exercised in cutting scuttle covers. Often for security reasons, skylights have been removed and the scuttle coverings for such openings consist of plywood or other light materials with little or no substantial framing supports. Members should avoid walking or placing their weight on these coverings.

Where roof cutting is critical a Chief Officer should be assigned as the Roof Sector Supervisor to coordinate and direct roof operations.

In addition to normal cutting operations, examination hole should be cut to: A Determine if fire has extended to that area. B Use right angle tips, or if the Cockloft is deep enough, cellar pipes. C Determine if and where additional ventilation cuts may be necessary. D Release prints up gases, smoke and heat in areas removed from the fire.

At cellar fires, it is often necessary to cut the first floor to provide the necessary means of ventilation so that the engine may advance their lines for extinguishment. The cut also may be used for getting water on the fire with bent tips, distributors or cellar pipes. The cut should be made as near to the windows as possible and away from doorways and aisles. When the run of the floor joists has been established, the cut should be extended a right angles to the joists. This provides additional cellar ventilation l, maximum ventilation of the bays between joists and access points for streams. The size, location and number of cuts depend on the obstructions encountered, location and extent of the fire and the area of the occupancy. Additional cuts in the adjacent stores should be made as required. All such cuts should be covered by hose lines.

At times due to intense heat, smoke, or lack of horizontal ventilation, the roof must be opened over the ventilation holes on the first floor. Cuts at roof level must be made to provide ventilation, so that units operating on that floor may operate and maintain control. This may also be necessary to provide ventilation if force are operating in the cellar. Initiation of these cut should not be delayed. Failure to maintain control of the first floor or cellar may result in the fire spreading throughout the building and into the Cockloft.

Often, due to the street grade, taxpayers are built with stepped-up roofing. Therefore in a taxpayer we may encounter two or more roof levels. A fire starting in an occupancy at the lower grade level will have a natural tendency to travel to the higher portions or stepped-up portions with rapidity. The Divisions between these roof levels, if there are any, offer little resistance to rapid involvement of the entire Cockloft and roof area. Steps must be taken to insure ventilation, and trenching if necessary, to preclude fire spread.

With increased knowledge regarding bowstring truss roof construction, ( it’s flaws and associated history of failure) a cautious approach must be adapted, regardless of the size of the fire area. In taxpayers with bowstring truss roof construction m, the following tactics shall apply:

A Prior to implementing interior operations, the IC must perform a risk assessment keeping in mind that the life hazard and safety of the members involved in the operation is of paramount concern. The IC may implement an interior attack after a risk assessment has been performed based on the following factors: 1 Current structural stability of the building 2 Any known life hazard 3 size and location of the fire 4 Verification of safe access to fire area.

If interior operations are implemented, the operating force and interior operational time shall be kept to a minimum with the maximum amount of supervision. Note: No member shall operate on the roof that has a content or structural fire with wooden m, metal or combination bowstring truss.

B At vacant building with bowstring truss roof construction, exterior operations should be the primary tactical consideration.

C At large or advanced fires, or where the timber trusses or the underside of the roof are involved in fire, exterior operations should be primary tactical consideration.

D In buildings with ceilings, the bowstring trusses are found in an attic are above the ceilings. This can be extremely dangerous, as interior opening forces at an apparent small, localized fire may be unaware of fire involvement in the trusses above them. Members shall use the thermal imaging camera from below to assess if fire has involved the truss space. Another method to determine if fire has entered the truss space is to make a triangular cut in the sloping hip section in the front or rear of the roof from the safety of a TL. Collapse zones must be adhered to during this operation. When fire is found to involve the truss space, exterior operations should be the primary tactical consideration. If possible, an exterior hose stream from a TL may be directed into these roof cuts to extinguish fire.

E Units are reminded of the collapse potential of these type roof systems, with particular attention being paid to the front and rear walls. This is due to the hip rafters being pushed in a down and outward fashion when the main roof collapses.

F When there is a need for members to operate on a bowstring truss roof of a building not involved in fire, i.e. operating a hoseline from the roof into an adjoining fire building, the IC must take into account the past history of truss failure In these buildings, particularly if the building is vacant.

In newer taxpayers the roof supports are of lightweight open web steel joists.

A They are spaces greater distances apart than the standard wood joists.

B The spacing of the joists will vary depending on the strength of the joists and the type of roof decking used.

C The most common decking is corrugated steel. With this type decking, the joists are spaces from 4-6ft

D Steel rib straight trusses do not present the same problems for fire spread as does wood joists construction. The danger is their being weakened by heat and fire from the contents of the occupancy. Fire resistance is a function of the mass of material. Lightweight members have little inherent fire resistance.

E Roofs of Fire buildings with this type of roof support system must not be cut.

F Vertical ventilation should be limited to removal of skylights and scuttle covers if present.

E Emphasis should be placed on any and all horizontal ventilation points.

H Gypsum concrete decking is of lightweight construction, spans wide spaces and is vulnerable to moisture. These characteristics are conductive to early collapse under fire conditions. Therefore, members shall not be committed to roof operations. Interior operations shall be conducted from areas of safety due to the weight of such decking materials ( 17.5lbs per sq ft) The Presence of a gypsum roof deck will be indicated by white powdery residue during saw operations. Upon this observation, members should immediately notify the Roff Sector Supervisor and IC and evacuate the roof.

In summary, at taxpayer fires where the roof supporting system is wood hoist and the roof must be cut: A Members must realize, the larger the vertical opening, the more effective ventilation will be.

B Never allow smaller manageable 4x4ft segment of an 8x8ft Ventilation hole segment to be pulled until the necessary additional leg cuts are placed in the cutting pattern. The early removal of the initial segment will often prevent the saw team from completing additional cuts.

Trenching: A trench cut is an opening made the full distance between two exterior walls or other fire stops. The width of the trench should be at least 3ft wide A trench cut may be made in any direction. Note: refer to section 5.5.26 for roof operations at taxpayers constructed with roof supports of lightweight open web steel joists.

Trenching does not take place of ventilation holes. A trench may serve as an additional ventilation source. It’s main purpose is to prevent the fire from passing that point at which the cut is made.

It is not practical to trench a large roof area of a taxpayer where fire has seriously involved a major portion of the cockloft. Emphasis must be placed on ventilation holes.

The Roof Sector Supervisor can start a trench cut where he sees the necessity for it. Immediate notification to the IC of the operation is mandatory.

Trench cuts may be useful depending on Fire conditions. In the event of a cellar fire or a serious first floor fire where successful operations are doubtful and it is feared that fire may eventually extend into the Cockloft, a trench as defensive measure may be advisable.

When making a trench advantage of shafts, chimneys, bulkheads, scuttles. Taking advantage of these will reduce the amount of cutting for the trench.

In summation, the success of roof opera depends on a proper size-up of conditions, possible developments, and talking an appropriate course of action. This will result in prompt, proper and effective roof operations, allow quick advancement of hoselines and final extinguishment of the fire with a minimum of damage.

Front 6

Battalion Chiefs at taxpayers

Back 6

Monitor the radio in quarters and while responding. Be aware of any changes in response patterns. This will forewarn you of any delays in responses.

The first to arrive BC shall assume the position of IC and establish the ICP in proximity to the front of the building but outside the collapse zone. The need for additional alarms or special call additional units. Special calling additional BC to supervise additional sectors or groups as Incident expands. If the IC cant get a clear situation report from units on scene, he may have to change tactics to a defensive or exterior operation. FF must stay with their assigned Chief during the Incident in the event a Command Channel is activated.

Assume command of operation and:

A continue your size-up Determine from the first arriving officer: 1. Existing conditions and actions taken. 2. Units present and where they are operating.

B. When not already available, ascertain the following: 1. The life hazard, immediate or potential. 2 The exposure problems: are they immediate a potential. 3 The location and extent of the fire. 4 The accessibility from the rear.

C Determine if sufficient units are present to deal with conditions. If not, transmit the necessary alarms.

D Implement your strategy and inform your units.

E The IC will establish sectors or groups early into operation.

F Once a Sector/group is assigned units assigned to such sector/group will report directly to their sector/group supervisor and there supervisor report to the IC. When conditions warrant, the IC may assign an Operation Section Chief or Branches to maintain a manageable span of control. If this happens supervisor will report directly to the operations section chief who would then report to the IC. If branches are established, Supervisors will report to the Branch Director who will then report to the Operations Section Chief.

When two handlines are operating on an advanced fire in a store, special call an extra engine and ladder. Transit a second alarm for extension to the Cockloft, adjoining occupancy or for an advanced fire in the cellar. The need for additional ladder companies at these operations is great, anticipate such and special call as needed.

If a TL aid not on initial response. Special call one. A properly positioned TL can cover a building with a frontage of 100ft.

Make sure ladder units have positioned enough portable ladders to the roof. All sides should be covered. A minimum of 2 should be placed in the front to provide alternate egress from roof and placed to show boundaries of the fire.

Coordinate the units, make sure enough lines are stretched, that forcible entry, ventilation are coordinated.

Consideration must be given to fire going to voids and recesses and possible collapse of floors, ceilings or roof must be considered.

When Harvey caliber streams are use units should get out of the building and only return when an assessment of conditions is made of the building.

At major fires consideration must be given to the flying brand hazard. Patrols must be initiated to interior operations.

Additional chiefs should be called if operations are on more than one street front. At extensive and critical roof operations with a lot of units and where units are on more than one level of a taxpayer.

The need for the services of special units shall be considered: A Hi Expansion Foam: In difficult cellar fires to extinguish or cooking to advance lines.

B MSU: For cylinders

C Rescue: The special equipment and knowledge.

D Satellite units: They carry the 6”inch hose used to supply the manifold, which in turn will reduce long stretches of many and varied lines.

IC responsibilities at other commercial fires:

It will generally be the same for other commercial buildings. Others would be factories, theaters, large commercial buildings and department stores.

If the building has a fire command station, the first to arrive battalion chief shall establish the ICP at this location.

If the building doesn’t have a Fire Command station or its location makes it unsuitable for use, the ICP should be made outside the building close enough to maintain radio communications with operating units but far enough away to be able to properly size-up the situation.

Front 7

General Tactics at taxpayers

Back 7

The most problems and losses and requires most commitment of resources and time is when taxpayer fires are closed.

Fire may have reached and advanced stage and involved a good portion of the structure before the alarm has been transmitted at these times.

The possibility of a backdraft is great if fire has not vented itself. When roof ventilation is effected and there is a delay in placing water on the fire it intensifies and invariably involves other stores, mainly via the Cockloft.

In some case you can’t tell the fire building due to heavy smoke or window covered in security devices. The roof examination may give a quicker means of telling fire location.

Windows in taxpayers have been removed, bricked up or covered with sturdy materials.

A Getting entry takes time, effort and staffing.

B If waters delayed fire can gain headway especially if its in Cockloft area.

Strategy used for tactics and control of the fire:

A Offensive Attack B Defensive hold C Either of them in any order or combination.

Conditions such as the following may negate the standard approach to a fire:

A Life hazard must be given first priority.

B Large fire needing large caliber streams.

C Location of Fire, inaccessible for hand line.

D Materials in fire, explosion, water application compounding the problem.

E Further fire spread to exposure.

F Stability of building, depends on structural components and intensity, duration of fire.

Front 8

Engine tactics, taxpayers

Back 8

General: Taxpayer fires are fast-spreading and hard to control and extinguish.

When heavy or medium fire conditions the initial lines should be 2 1/2 These lines can be used later to supply distributors, cellar pipes and heavy stream appliances. If 2 1/2 not required after the initial attack, they can be reduced to 1 3/4 for subsequent operations.

Supplying a sprinkler system is to be given a high priority after the establishment of the initial line. When compatible with fire conditions, 1 3/4 lines may be used in exposures.

manifolds carries by satellite units may be of great advantage at fires where many lines will have to be stretched.

If difficulty is encountered to get entrance, a small hole in the security doors and removal of the window may provide an opening for hose stream operations. Consider using cellar pipes or distributors from the roof or floor above into the fire area. Protection lines must be given for members operating these devices.

For fires traveling rapidly along row of stores. May be best to skip stores and stretch lines into alternate stores ahead of Fire. The bypassed stores will be covered by subsequent lines.

Many cases where entry is delayed or where pulling of ceilings is impossible due to fire conditions. A hose line into a trench cut may contain fire. Before lines are operated all members must leave the store. As soon as interior operations can be resumed the lines must be shut down before entry into the area below. Small holes should be made in the ceiling to check for accumulations of water above the ceiling before interior operations are commenced.

Note: The Engine Officer shall announce via HT when the initial hoseline attack is to commence. Conditions behind, adjoining or above the operating hoseline must be monitored for sudden deterioration due to the effects of hoseline advancement on the fire. All members must be aware of hoseline operations so they may seek refuge if necessary.

Front 9

Cellar fires taxpayers Eng ops

Back 9

Major problems:

A. Occupants may be trapped in the cellar or in the rear of stores, if the fire extends from the cellar into stores.

B Ventilation of the cellar is necessary to permit the advancing of hoselines for extinguishment. It is also necessary to maintain control of the first floor.

C The horizontal spread of fire between joints of the first floor and cellar ceiling.

D security devices will delay access and ops at night. Entrance to the cellar may be one or more of the following: an interior trap door, an interior cellar stairway, an exterior flush sidewalk door, an exterior stairway or a horizontal entrance from an adjoining cellar.

E The vertical travel of fire, smoke and heat via partitions, pipe recesses, voids,ducts, interior stairs or burning through the floor.

F Fire weakening floor beams, iron girders and columns.

G Location of the Fire in a cellar with high bulk storage,irregular, partitioning, and a maze of aisles.

Tactics Specific:

A Supply a line to the cellar sprinkler Siamese if the building has one.

B When stretching hand lines to cellar enough hose should be flaked out, charged, and the kinks removed before advancing down the cellar stairs.

C Remember a charged line may be your only means of escape in case of rapid heat release, rollover, or flashover.

D When there is an interior stair to the cellar, especially if it is an open stair, and conditions permit, the first line must be stretched to this point to prevent the spread of fire and to permit operations on the first floor

E The flooring should be checked for heat conditions in the cellar, as the line is advanced to the stairs. The door to the cellar must also be checked for heat before it is opened

F When the line can advance down the cellar stairs it should do so. A second hoseline must be stretched to the top of the stairs to protect the members in the cellar and prevent the upward extension of the fire.

G position at the center and top of the stairs will be bad. Where in the cellar, close to the floor is better. Keep stairway and door openings clear in case members need to withdraw.

H Officers of advancing lines should monitor heat conditions.

I last member on hoseline should look of the area behind for fire, A member should be at the interior entrance to cellar to monitor conditions.

J Operating lines in cellar, main fire hard to hit due to wall partitions, high oiled stock, irregular layouts, short stretched.

K When can’t move stock deflect the stream off the ceiling over stock.

L If impossible to put line into cellar via interior stairs, operate lines from front or rear exterior entrances. Don’t oppose lines. Advancing two lines into the cellar simultaneously may control fire.

M Cellars of large area might need two lines and if that don’t work heavy outside streams will be used.

N USE HI Ex foam, distributors, cellar pipes in a potential collapse.

O When conditions indicate, use cellar pipes and distributors through holes in the floor.

P Flood first floor with use of stand nozzle or TL pipe as last resort.

Q Stretch lines into adjoining cellars and operate through holes made in partitions

R Stretch lines for exposure protection.

Assignments:

1st due Eng: First line into the occupancy above the fire to prevent vertical extension. If the building has a sprinkler if staffing and conditions permit, a second line shall be stretched to feed this system.

2nd due: Help 1st due with initial line. If 1st due hasn’t supplied the sprinkler the 2nd due will if conditions permit. After Stretch a 2nd line to backup 1st line which may be used to:

1 To Control the first floor of the first engine company has advanced into the cellar via the interior cellar entrance.

2 Serve as a backup or protection line for the first engine company.

3 Stretch into the cellar via the interior stairs or the outside entrance of the first line has to control the first floor.

4 To employ the use of cellar pipes or distributors over the fire.

3rd due: Make sure Sprinkler is supplied. When 2nd due is helping 1st due with the line, stretch a second line which may be used as said above.

Additional engines: Will be used to stretch and operate lines to:

1 Cover any additional stores where needed.

2 Supply distributors or cellar pipes.

3 Reinforce lines already in operation

4 Supply heavy caliber stream appliance.

5 Stretch precautionary lines to the roof of the taxpayer and be prepared to use bent tips in the sidewalks and partitions.

Front 10

Store fires Eng Ops.

Back 10

Tactics (store fires):

A At taxpayer fires during business hours, there may be major life hazards. The first arriving engines must position their line of possible, between the people and the fire. Break the store front windows for line advancement and leave the exit doors free for the people to use.

B The first two lines should be stretched to the store involved.

C Additional lines should be stretched to the adjoining stores. A line may also be required on the roof to protect personnel and exposures once the roof is opened.

D Depending on fire conditions extra lines can be stretched for cellar pipes and distributors, to be used in the store or stores involved.

E Hoselines must be available to operate stand nozzles and TL streams

F Hoselines should be stretched to exposures in the rear or at the sides of the building as required.

G Be aware that some ladder company tools may be needed to aid the engines in their stretches, 6ft hooks, forcible entry tools.

Major Problems:

A life hazard, particularly at the rear of an occupied store.

B fire entering the hanging ceiling and the Cockloft.

C Spread of the Fire through concealed spaces and ducts.

D Fire spreading to adjoining stores through weak partitions

E Roof, ceiling or floor supports weakened by fire may collapse.

F Manpower for forcible entry if the fire occurs when the stores are closed.

G Stock and partitions impeding the progress of advancing lines.

Assignments:

1st due: Stretch the first line into the involved store to protect life and fight fire. Sprinkler in building try to supply with 2nd line.

2nd due: Assist 1st Engine with initial line. If sprinkler isn’t supplied supply it. After if can stretch a line to backup 1st line.

3rd due: Ensure sprinkler system is supplied. Stretch a line and operate as ordered as ordered by the IC.

Front 11

Cockloft fires Eng Ops

Back 11

Tactics:

A Ventilate the roof to control fire spread and permit units to advance into occupancies.

B Ceilings shall be pulled in occupancies to expose fire and define extent of same. The IC shall order a handline with a cockloft nozzle into the interior to knockdown the fire in the Cockloft.

C Hoselines shall be advanced into occupancies to extinguish and limit extension.

D Trenches should be cut to limit fire extension in the cockloft area if necessary.

E Use bent tips in the sidewalks and partitions to limit fire spread.

F Operate from the roof with cellar pipes, distributors or NY bent tips. Protective lines should be stretched to protect members operating these appliances.

G Operate Hoselines directly into roof openings. This generally is not a good practice but in some cases may be the only way of hitting the fire and controlling it. Note: before roof operations all interior operations must stop. The primary line is used to protect members on roof and prevent fire extension to exposures.

H As a last resort: when interior ops to dangerous, use TL, multiverse and deckpioe streams.

I On older type taxpayers there may be vents or store signs attached to the front of the building covering openings into the Cockloft. Stream can be operated into these openings to effect extinguishment.

Major Problmes:

A Rapid extension of the fire throughout the entire Cockloft with fire dropping into the stores.

B Serious exposures to adjoining buildings, particularly to taller adjoining building on the Lee aide of the fire.

C Life hazard in the taxpayer and adjoining buildings.

D Collapse of ceilings, the roof, parapet walls, roof signs, air conditioners or other heavy equipment on the roof.

E Duct systems spreading fire, smoke and gases throughout the building.

F The danger of pent up gases in the Cockloft exploding when air and an ignition source are introduced.

Assignments:

1st due: When Fire has control of the Cockloft and the need for exposure protection is critical, position the engine to utilize the deckpipe. In-line pumping will give good positioning and allow room for placement of a TL.

1 Stretch a handline into the most seriously exposed occupancy, depending on life hazard and the location an severity of the fire.

2 Use a 2 1/2 or 1 3/4.

3 When exposures are not an immediate problem, then the first line should be stretched into the store under the main body of fire and operates to extinguish the fire.

2nd due: When Fire has control of the Cockloft, and the need for exposure protection is critical, assist first line. If staffing/ conditions permit stretch a line into another seriously exposed buildings and operate into the Cockloft to confine and extinguish the fire. It may be advisable to skip stores in order to confine a Cockloft Fire.

3rd due: Ensure sprinkler system is supplied. Stretch a line and operate as ordered by IC.

Front 12

Ladder Company Tactics

Back 12

Genera: Life Safety is primary duty of ladder companies. Ladder members must be alert of life hazards in cellars, second floor occupancies, and in badly exposed buildings.

Ladder company Officers must quickly observe the types of occupancies present to evaluate the life hazard potential of the building.

Egress from second stories is often limited and panic conditions are possible. These buildings must be well laddered to provide:

A Roof Access and egress.

B Second floor recuse.

C Escape routes for members searching the 2nd floor.

Many individual 2nd floor occupancies do not have a secondary means of egress. Heavy smoke in the second floor public hall may have trapped people in these occupancies. A thorough search must be made and all doors must be opened. Refuge may have been sought in such windowless areas as lavatories, store rooms, or closets.

Prompt ventilation at the roof is very important for the safety of the occupants and to enable search and rescue to be carried out.

Occupants may be trapped in the rear areas of stores, such as, stockrooms, walk in refrigerators (cold boxes), lavatories, offices, mezzanines and cellars. Windows from these rear areas may be barred, bricked over or covered with steel or wood for security reasons.

It is the responsibility of the first ladder company to arrive to locate and identify the fire. There may be times when attending to the life hazard may prevent the carrying out of these assignments. At such times, the second ladder company will carry out the assignment.

The importance of communications between ladder companies and the IC cannot be overemphasized. Information, conditions found and actions taken or contemplated must be continually fed back.

Control must be maintained by company Officers so that communications continue regardless of the operating demands placed upon the unit.

Prompt laddering of the roof for access must be carried out to perform reconnaissance of the top, sides and rear of the building, as well as for roof ventilation. Roof access should never be attempted via the interior. Place several ladders to the roof to provide remote escape routes.

The roof firefighter or Roof Sector Supervisor, When assigned, should relay information on the following to IC:

A size and shape of the building.

B Location and volume of fire or smoke.

C Exposures-sides and rear

D Roof loading-signs, machinery

E Evidence of Cockloft Fire.

F Roof construction.

1 Presence (or absence) of extending parapets or evidence of fire walls.

2 Differences in levels of the roof

3 Cornices- information on height, depth, opening into Cockloft.

4 False fronts extending over the roof.

Where a backdraft potential exits, follow guidelines.

Roof ventilation will be accomplished by removal of skylights and scuttle covers where they exits. The fascia or returns of these well-holes should be opened for examination of the Cockloft.

Check for fire extension into the Cockloft early and often.

When ladder company personnel are used to force security gates and street doors, it may be preferable to have them continue down the row of stores, opening all that may reasonably be expected to be necessary, rather than to suffer delay later in getting ladder maneuvers back from other duties.

When the forces at hand are limited, it may be necessary to skip a few doors initially to more quickly determine fire extension.

The demands for ladder company services at tax per fires are many. Engine companies can be pressed into service to perform truck work such as forcing a door, feeling partitions for heat opening ceilings to get water into the Cockloft ahead of a traveling fire.

At times access to the rear is limited. Portable ladders can easily be pulled over the roof for access to the rear for ventilation or forcible entry. A tower ladder can be used for carrying portable ladders to the roof.

TL should be positioned in front of the building in preference to conventional aerials. Heavy stream appliance is now in position if needed for the fire building or to protect exposures.

The basket of the tower ladder can be positioned a foot or two above the street level and the tower ladder stream can be directed into the store or stores. This allows a heavy stream to be moved into position quickly which can be readily moved from store to store.

Front 13

Cellar fires Ladders OPS

Back 13

Tactics:

A Locating a cellar fire may be difficult, particularly when the building is closed.

B Suspect a cellar fire of smoke shows in many stores and there Is a high heat condition on the first floor with no visible flame in either case.

C In taxpayers do not expect to find the cellar layout conforming to the first floor layout.

D First floor may be extensions of cellar fires. May drop down and start a cellar fire. Cellars must always be checked.

E Adjoining cellars must be examined promptly to check for extension via partitions or ceilings.

F Ventilation of the store must be rapid and complete to enable the lines to advance.

G Where openings into the cellar are limited, holes must be cut in the store floor.

H The practice of opening up directly over the main area of involvement may not always be practical for cellar fires. Conditions may require cutting holes in the floor near windows or under skylights.

I Floors should not be cut until a hoseline is in position to protect personnel and prevent fire extension.

K Smoke ejectors can be placed over holes cut in floors or hung in openings remote from the entrance through which the line is advancing.

L Extension of a cellar fire to the Cockloft via partitions, pipe recesses, and ducts must be checked for early and often.

M Ladder company personnel must work into the cellar along with the engine companies to move stock, force doors and search as the fire is being extinguished.

N when sending members into cellars to shut down utilities, two mask equipped members shall be dispatched as a team.

Assignments:

A Fire ladder company to arrive

1 Forcible Entry Team:

A To the store occupancy above the fire. Forcible entry as required at store entrance and cellar entrance.

B Search the store for occupants and remove.

C After communicating and coordinating with 1st Ladder Officer, ventilate the store as necessary. Take out the store windows if required. Ventilate rear from interior where possible.

D Necessary opening of partitions, ceilings and ducts.

E Cut the floor for required ventilation and operation of cellar pipes, distributors, bent tips or high expansion foam.

F Shut down utilities.

G Work in with engine companies to perform search and forcible entry and to remove obstruction which may be preventing the engine companies from advancing.

2 Roof Firefighter:

A Place and raise portable ladder to the roof.

B After communicating and coordinating with ladder Officer inside the fire area to be vented, provide necessary roof ventilation of scuttles, skylights.

C Monitor the roof, unless otherwise directed.

3 OV:

A Check the rear and sides of the building for access.

B After communicating and coordinating with Ladder Officer inside the fire are to be vented, provide necessary roof ventilation of scuttles, skylights.

C Monitor the roof, unless otherwise directed.

4 Chauffeur:

A Taking into consideration many variables, including but not limited to, the location of fire and fire extension within the fire building, exposure protection concerns, and collapse potential, TL shall be positioned as follows:

Generally, the primary position of the 1st arriving TL is in front of the fire building.

If the taxpayer faces on two streets and the front of the building is covered by TL Athens place the additional TL Ari cover the other street front.

TL should be positioned so that the fire can be cut off and driven back to the point of origin.

B If apparatus is a rear mount aerial ladder, place it away from the immediate fire building. In order to leave the are accessible for a TL.

C Join the forcible entry team, if not directed otherwise.

Second ladder company to arrive:

1 Forcible Entry Team:

A To adjacent stores and cellar entrance.

B Search stores.

C Communicate and coordinate ventilation with Ladder Officer in area to be vented.

D Check for fire extension. Open up floors, ceilings, and partitions

E Cut floors where necessary for operation of cellar pipes distributors and bent tips.

2 Roof Firefighter:

A Place a second portable ladder to the roof.

B bring Sae to the roof if not required elsewhere and roof requires further opening.

C If services are not required on roof, perform as directed.

3 OV:

A Team up with 1st Ladder OV

4 Chauffeur:

A Position TL for most effective utilization

B If apparatus is a rear mount aerial place it away from the immediate fire building. To make room for TL.

C Join the forcible entry team, If not directed otherwise.

C Additional ladder companies shall be special called and utilized to:

1 Perform necessary forcible entry.

2 Provide Additional Ventilation.

3 Pull ceilings and open partitions.

4 Cut open floors and roof.

5 Make secondary search.

Front 14

Store/ Cockloft fires Ladder Ops

Back 14

Tactics: store fire

A Most taxpayer fires originate in the store occupancy at street level. The occupancy usually consist of a sales area, a storage area and a utility area. Fires in these premises generally originate in the storage or utility area, which in most occupancies are in the rearmost portion of the building. In the same building, the storage or utility area of one store may butt the rear storage area may extend behind stores in the same building, forming an L shaped occupancy. Light partition walls will usually separate such stores.

B All areas must be searched for removal of the occupants with particular attention given to the rear and main selling areas. The cellar, rear or mezzanine areas may contain accommodations for the employees of the store to rest.

C Entry must be made into one or more occupancies as necessary, to locate the fire.

D The probing of the ceiling area with a hook upon entering will give some indication of conditions in the Cockloft area.

E Ventilation of the store at the front by the removal of show window shall be done if ordered by the IC

F Ventilation and access from the rear is often limited and time consuming due to boarded or sealed windows and doors.

H Shut down fan motors to prevent a forced draft that may spread the fire.

I Caution must be exercised in working in the area of stoves with the presence of conditioners of hot grease and oils.

J Verify that the fire origin was actually in the store in which operations are in progress. This can only be assured by checking adjacent stores, which may be to the side or rear.

Tactics: Cockloft Fires:

A Although the fire may have started in the Cockloft from defecting wiring, or a defective chimney, most fires extend to the Cockloft through ceilings, vertical arteries or ducts from fires in stores or cellars

B Ladder companies must attempt immediate and complete roof ventilation using saws to cut a large hole over the main body of fire. Examination holes shall be made to ascertain whether fire has reached other portions of the roof. They also serve to relieve that portion of the roof area of heat and gases and mitigate possible Backdrafts.

C Where the size of the roof and the forces on hand make it practical, a trench cut may be made to head off fire extension in the Cockloft.

D The practicality of trenching will depend on many factors:

1 The size of the roof- a long trench may take too much time.

2 The volume of fire- it may be no longer possible to get ahead of the fire.

3 Ceilings- height and type. Due to inaccessibility and extensive lighting systems. It may be necessary to attack the fire from above.

E Ceilings, in stores or on the second floor of two story taxpayers, must be opened rapidly. Sufficient personnel, with proper size hooks, must be assigned if quick control of the fire is to be accomplished.

F Holes may be needed for cellar pipe, distributor or bent tip use.

Front 15

Store/cockloft Lad Assignments

Back 15

Assignments:

1st due:

1 Forcible Entry team:

A Force Entry. B Locate the Fire. C Control the life hazard. D Search the store. E Communicate and coordinate ventilation of the store at the front with Ladder Officer to be vented. Remove the show windows when authorized by the IC and only when a charged line is in position.

F Open ceilings and partitions in the fire store for examination and extinguishment.

G Check the cellar for fire.

H Shut down gas and electric supply.

I Work in with the engine company.

2 Roof Firefighter:

A Place a portable ladder to the roof.

B Take the saw to the roof and speaking to officer vent the roof.

C Monitor the roof and report changing conditions to the IC.

3 OV:

A Check the rear for access.

B After communicate with officer to vent the rear.

C When Access in the rear is available attempt entry when teamed with the 2nd OV, ( or another member) Notify the company Officer and conduct searches.

4 Chauffeur:

A Taking into consideration many variables, including but not limited to, the location of fire and fire extension within the fire building, exposure protection concerns, and collapse potential, TL shall be positioned:

1st TL in front of the building.

If taxpayer faces on two streets and the front of the building is covered by TLs, then place the additional TL Ari cover the other street front.

TL should be positioned so that the fire can be cut off and driven back to point of origin.

B if aerial place away from building.

C Join the forcible entry team. If fire extends to the Cockloft, proceed to the roof to assist roof firefighter.

2nd due:

1 Forcible Entry team:

A Force Entry into the adjacent stores.

B Check for fire extension.

C Perform necessary search.

D Communicate and coordinate ventilation with Lad Officer to be vented.

E Open up partitions and ceilings for engine companies to extinguish the fire.

2 Roof Firefighter:

A Raise 2nd portable ladder to the roof. take saw to roof and assist in ventilation

3 OV

A Team yo with the 1st lad OV

B Proceed to the roof or other position as directed.

4 Chauffeur:

A Position TL for most effective utilization.

B if aerial place away from building.

C Join the forcible entry team, if not directed otherwise.

3rd due/ additional ladder:

1 Provide Additional Forcible Entry

2 Provide Additional ventilation.

3 Pull ceilings and open partitions for engine to extinguish fire.

4 Provide Additional TL

5 Perform other duties as directed

Front 16

Tool Assignment at Taxpayers

Back 16

A Forcible Entry team: Can and hook, ax and gallivants tool. One member can be used to go for additional tools as needed.

1 The maul and duckbill lockbreaker May be required for some padlocks.

2 The Bam-Bam tool and screwdriver are used to pull padlock cylinders. Brass padlock cylinders are being replaced by case hardened materials. The Bam-Bam tool is ineffective on these locks.

3 The use of the saw must be considered to cut security doors with recessed locks. The proper blade, aluminum oxide, shall be used for this purpose.

4 The metal slays of the security doors can be removed by using the power saw. Two cuts are made across the slats to form a triangle with the apex at the top. This makes it possible to remove the cut slats and push the remainder of the door up, or it provides an opening for hoseline operations after the windows are removed.

B OV:

1 Objective: forced entry, search and ventilation.

2 Obstructions which may be encountered in the rear are doors sealed with wood or metal and bricked up windows.1 The tools taken must be commensurate with goals. The mail and halligan are required. A hook, pike head or flat head ax will be inadequate in this situation.

C Roof Firefighter:

Saw, hook, subsequently bring an ax or iron if available. Tatted over scuttles and skylights can be removed, and a full complement of tools will be available for use. Engine company may use these if truck is at its premium.

Taxpayers need hooks (10,12 and 15ft) 1st and 2nd due should bring their 10 and 12ft hooks besides their normal tool complement.

Units quipped with smoke ejectors shall consider their use where conditions warrant. Ejectors can be of particular value in venting below grade areas where heavier than air gases can accumulate.

Portable lights shall be used where operations will be facilitated. They should not be thought of as just an overhauling tool.

Portable pumps may be used for dewatering flooded areas in fire building and exposures.

Front 17

Tactics, two- story taxpayer

Back 17

When the fire is on the first floor, operations will be similar to those for one-story taxpayers, but with added emphasis on the following:

Life hazard may be great on the 2nd floor with possible panic conditions.

Completely Ladder the 2nd floor. Utilize portable ladders.

Life hazard on the 2nd floor may require extensive search procedures.

Use hose stream to protect occupants where necessary.

Preventing the spread of fire to the upper floor and Cockloft will require the proper placement of many Hoselines.

Retain comman of the first floor to save the 2nd floor.

A large hall on the 2nd floor may mean roof girders and a deep Cockloft.

Vigorous action is required to prevent fire from extending to the 2nd floor and the Cockloft.

Ventilation holes cut on upper floors can provide venting fire areas below and facilitate other operations.

Fire extension in ducts and shafts May present serious problems.

Examine for fire extension in walls, shaft, ducts. The possibility of a large open stairway must not be overlooked if the occupancy on the second floor is dance hall, meeting hall.

If the fire originated in the cellar it may require flooding of the first floor as a last resort.

A fire originating on the 2nd floor of the two-story taxpayer may be treated as a fire originating on the first floor of a one-story taxpayer. Added emphasis must be given to the following:

The need for an aerial ladder to the roof for ventilation.

The forcible entry team should use the stairway to the second floor.

In a second floor occupancy with large unobstructed areas, such as a dance hall or meeting hall, the ceiling beams span greater distance, the Cockloft may be deeper and the ceilings may be higher. This will require using proper size hooks, 10ft or longer, more time and work and additional staffing to open these ceilings.

If the second floor is divided into multi-occupancy use, the penetration of heavy caliber stream will be limited due to partitions subdividing the floor area.

The probability of a fire extending into the Cockloft is greater.

Remote stairs and rear Fire escapes must be looked for.

The advancement of ladder company personnel should be coordinated with engine company personnel to expedite the locating, confining and extinguishment of the fire.

Areas below the fire must be examined for any fire dropping down.

Front 18

Safety at taxpayer

Back 18

Interior operations:

Smoke conditions change rapidly in taxpayer fires, members should be prepared for it.

Be aware of falling and hanging objects, flimsy mounted fluorescent fixtures, hanging BX electrical cables, sheet of tin from ceilings, advancing and operating in an upright position while using mask may expose Firefighter to serious injury from these objects.

Advance carefully with Hoselines. Large open areas allow the fire to move around the sides of, over, and behind the fire forces.officers and members are to be constantly aware of conditions at the sides and rear until the fire is under control.

Flooring in these occupancies is those and cellar fires may burn through the first floor. Provide adequate lighting and cautiously define the safe floor areas. Openings found that may cause injury should be covered and their presence communicated to all members operating.

Advance in cellar fires cautiously. A search rope may be needed by engine and ladder. Large areas under many occupancies are subdivided. This creates a maze of storage rooms and corridors.

Chief and Officers should be cognizant of the need to provide illumination as soon as conditions and staffing allow. This aspect should be considered in daylight as well as in night operations.

Communications of conditions found should be watchword of safety. Holes or sects located from above or below (in the flooring or roof) worsening heat conditions, extending fire in Cockloft, ceilings or flooring areas are of concern not only to those observing them but also to those above and around.

Exterior Operations:

When operating on them flimsy roofs, members should be aware of sudden failure possibilities. Operations over a fire near heavy equipment, roof signs, should be accomplished with extreme causation. Communicating the types of equipment found and condition of supports in relation to the fire, is a must, both to command and to forces operating below.

Roof areas at taxpayer fires often very poor visibility. Slow maneuvering by member operating there, as well as the safety practice of probing ahead with tools should be common practice

Keep in mind your escape route from roof areas. As conditions and the area of operation change members should adjust their escape route.

All members at the scene should be aware of backdraft, flashover and collapse indications that are visible or indicated from any area. Combination here is also the key. A single point of information communicated to the officers charge may give the indication of imminent collapse when it is combined with previous feedback.

Visibility on the sidewalk and store front areas at these fires varies throughout the progress of the fire. Move cautiously when visibility is poor, take note of surroundings when visibility increases momentarily.

Plate glass in store windows and doors must be broken carefully and thoroughly trimmed to prevent serious injury. Eye shields must be down when breaking or trimming glass.

Cornices,?signs, marquees and other projections must be constantly monitored for possible weakening and collapse.

Safety at taxpayer fires should be an ongoing practice. The occupancy is a potential injury factory from the time of the fire departments arrival until the last member boards the apparatus to take up. Caution and communication are the watchwords to a safe operation.