Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
92 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
What is numerical phenetics?
|
a statistical approach to generating trees based on overall similarity of organisms
|
|
|
What are matches in terms of numerical phenetics?
|
shared character states among a pair of taxa
|
|
|
What is an OTU in reference to numerical phenetics?
|
operational taxonomic unit
|
|
|
What is cluster analysis and what type of systematic analysis tool can it be used for?
|
numerical phenetics; an exploratory data analysis tool for solving classification problems. Its object is to sort cases (people, things, events, etc) into groups, or clusters, so that the degree of association is strong between members of the same cluster and weak between members of different clusters; for generation of phenograms; it demonstrates sequence divergence
|
|
|
What are mismatches?
|
any pair of taxa in a matrix donot match one another
|
|
|
What is an outgroup?
|
any group used in an cladistic analysis of phylogenetic relationships for the purpose of character polarization that is not a member of the ingroup- used to identify plesiodistic character states
|
|
|
What is plesiomorphous?
|
nearly alike in form
|
|
|
What is symplesiomorphous?
|
A symplesiomorphy or symplesiomorphic character is in cladistics a trait which is shared (a symmorphy) between two or more taxa, but which is also shared with other taxa which have an earlier last common ancestor with the taxa under consideration. They are therefore not an indication that the taxa considered are more closely related to each other than to the more distant taxa, as all share the more primitive trait; shows the danger of grouping species together on the basis of general morphologic similarity, without distinguishing between resemblances caused by either primitive or derived traits
|
|
|
What is synapomorphic?
|
A shared derived character state; is a derived character state shared by two or more terminal groups (taxa included in a cladistic analysis as further indivisible units) and inherited from their most recent common ancestor.
|
|
|
What is a derived character state?
|
in this case means that its ancestor again is lacking it — so it is a derived (new) character-state
|
|
|
What is apomorphy?
|
originating in their last common ancestor.
|
|
|
What makes cladistics different from other classification systems?
|
Cladistics is distinguished from other taxonomic systems because it focuses on evolution rather than similarities between species, and because it places heavy emphasis on objective, quantitative analysis.
|
|
|
What are cladograms?
|
that represent the evolutionary tree of life. DNA and RNA sequencing data are used in many important cladistic efforts. Computer programs are widely used in cladistics, due to the highly complex nature of cladogram generation procedures.
|
|
|
Who is the originator of cladistics?
|
William Hennig- who called is phylogenetic systematics
|
|
|
What is a cladogram?
|
group of species and molecular, morphological, or other data characterizing those species. The end result is a tree-like relationship diagram ; graphically represents a hypothetical evolutionary process.
|
|
|
What is Ernst Mayr do?
|
drew a distinction between the terms cladistics and phylogeny, using the term cladistics to refer to classifications which only take into account genealogy, as opposed to phylogeny, which had previously been used in a broader sense to refer to the combination of genealogy and amount of divergence from an ancestor
|
|
|
What is geneaology?
|
study of family lineage
|
|
|
What characteristics can be used to characterize a cladogram?
|
molecular characteristics or morphological characteristics
|
|
|
what is parsimony?
|
Adoption of the simplest assumption in the formulation of a theory or in the interpretation of data, especially in accordance with the rule of Ockham's razor.
|
|
|
What is Bayesian inference?
|
is statistical inference in which evidence or observations are used to update or to newly infer the probability that a hypothesis may be true
|
|
|
What are two non-Hennigian ways to evaluate sequence data?
|
maximum liklihood and Bayesian inference
|
|
|
What is convergent evolution?
|
is the process whereby organisms that are not monophyletic (not closely related) independently evolve similar traits as a result of having to adapt to ecological niches or similar environments. "homoplasy"
|
|
|
What are the structures that result from convergent evolution?
|
analogous structures or homoplasies; they should be contrasted with homologous structures, which have a common origin.
|
|
|
What is Polarization?
|
decision as to which of 2 or more character states are plesiomorphic or apormophic
|
|
|
What is the most used way for purpose of character polarization?
|
outgroup comparison
|
|
|
What does parsimony imply?
|
that simpler hypotheses are more preferable compared to more complicated ones
|
|
|
What is maximum parsimony?
|
character-based method that infers a phylogenetic tree by minimizing the total number of evolutionary steps required to explain a given set of data, or in other words by minimizing the total tree length.
|
|
|
What is a distant outgroup?
|
then won't share any character states which makes it impossible for cladistical analysis
|
|
|
What is a 1st outgroup?
|
group of organisms that is thought to be most closely related
|
|
|
What is the outgroup rule? Is this objective or subjective?
|
any character states that are shared by the outgroup and 1 ingroup member are pleisomorphic and any other character states shared by ingroup are derived.; objective
|
|
|
How does one determine if a species group is a pleisiomorph or synapomorphic group?
|
evaluating with outgroups
|
|
|
What is a sister group?
|
general term that can be used in phylogenetic trees that is a group of organisms that is phylogenetically most closely related to some other group-most recent common ancestor with the ingroup
|
|
|
What are descriptions of species or higher taxa systematic publications?
|
when someone is going to name a new species
|
|
|
What are revisionary studies?
|
are that seeks to review the contents of higher taxon with the aim to solve problems or revising the species classifcation
|
|
|
Why are vouchers helpful?
|
helpful to keep check of truth and validity of the knowledge about something. can contribute to known diversity and correctness of the biology of individual species
|
|
|
What are taxonomic reviews?
|
of genera and/or families- large scale works taken to observe a genre or taxa to see if all the species in the group are known and are correctly named
|
|
|
What is holotype?
|
The single specimen or illustration designated as the type for naming a species or subspecies or used as the basis for naming a species or subspecies when no type has been selected. Also called type.
|
|
|
What are ways to deposit of specimens?
|
in natural history museums
have archives to locate specimens and find out information have vouchers-specimens available in musuems types- specific kind of voucher which plays an impt role of recognizing whichnames should be used for each species |
|
|
What is a type specimen?
|
a specific kind of voucher which plays an important role in recognizing which names should be used for each species
|
|
|
What is a kind of preservative used to preserve specimens?
|
formalin- animal specimens used as anesthetic fixative placed in alcohol for long term preservation
DNA strands are cleaved by acidity. |
|
|
What does annotation of specimens mean?
|
can put info in database based on your research
|
|
|
What are major processes causing evolutionary change?
|
natural selection, random genetic drift: Founder Effect, Neutral Theory, Immigrationa nd emigration: gene flow
|
|
|
What is natural selection?
|
reproduction, presence of various character states, variation in fitness according to the state of variable characters
|
|
|
What is the founder effect?
|
the establishment of a new population by a few original founders that carry only a small fraction of the total genetic variation of the parental population
|
|
|
What is random genetic drift?
|
the frequency of alleles with same fitness will change at random over generations
|
|
|
What causes Founder Effect?
|
-original founder of new population was of small size; can lead to serious inbreeding effects
-"bottleneck"- in which population size is reduced to small #, followed by expansion size |
|
|
What are insular areas?
|
small areas that have a population of organisms restricted to that area
|
|
|
When there is a small population size what can happen to the alleles?
|
the allele may become fixed: homozygous
or lost- presence of another allele at that locus |
|
|
What is gene flow?
|
the incorporation of genes into the gene pool of one population from one or more other populations- whatever genes carried with them becamswe part of the new gene pool-can occur between different species
|
|
|
What is immigration?
|
to move or settle in another location (population)to one is not native
|
|
|
What is emigration?
|
to leave or settle in another population to one is not native
|
|
|
What is the biological species concept?
|
groups of interbreeding organisms that are reproductively isolated from other such groups./ isolated geographic populations that are not sharing genetic information should be called individual species
|
|
|
What is allopatry?
|
geographical relationships between population of species that don't occur in the same areas
|
|
|
What is parapatry?
|
geographical relationships between population of species in which distributions contact one another
|
|
|
What is sympatry?
|
geographical relationship between population of species in which there are different forms of species that occur in same geographical area-maynot come into contact physically.
|
|
|
What are the three words that describe geographical relationships among populations?
|
allopatry, parapatry, sympatry
|
|
|
What does "topy" mean?
|
space
|
|
|
What are mutations?
|
are changes to the nucleotide sequence of the genetic material of an organism.
|
|
|
What is tranversion?
|
the exchanging of pyrimidines for purines- errors that can occur during construction of sequence during replication that leads to mutations
|
|
|
What is transition?
|
on various sites along strands of DNA- can exchange purines for purines
|
|
|
What is genetic code?
|
various triplets of codons of nucleotides each encode for specific amino acids (proteins)
|
|
|
What are silent mutations?
|
when triplet codons of nucleotides encode for the same nucleic acid; substitution does not change expression of codon- synonymous mutation
|
|
|
What can insertions lead to?
|
add one or more extra nucleotides into the DNA.- can lead to major impacts of expression causing mutatiosn
|
|
|
What are non-synonymous mutations?
|
if substitution changes expression of codon called "meaning full mutation"
|
|
|
What is the "Neurtral theory"?
|
when one compares the genomes of existing species, the vast majority of molecular differences are selectively "neutral." That is, the molecular changes represented by these differences do not influence the fitness of the individual organism. As a result, the theory regards these genomic features as neither subject to, nor explicable by, natural selection.
|
|
|
What is the definition of a species?
|
A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate,
|
|
|
What is allopatric speciation?
|
also known as geographic speciation, is the phenomenon whereby biological populations are physically isolated by an extrinsic barrier and evolve intrinsic (genetic) reproductive isolation, such that if the barrier breaks down, individuals of the populations can no longer interbreed.
|
|
|
What is reproductive isolation?
|
is a category of mechanisms that prevent two or more populations from exchanging genes. The separation of the gene pools of populations, under some conditions, can lead to the genesis of distinct species.
|
|
|
What proposed Peripatric speciation?
|
ernst mayr
|
|
|
What is reproductive isolation?
|
is a category of mechanisms that prevent two or more populations from exchanging genes. The separation of the gene pools of populations, under some conditions, can lead to the genesis of distinct species.
|
|
|
What are the major speciation processes?
|
allopatric, peripatric, sympatric and parapatric
|
|
|
What proposed Peripatric speciation?
|
ernst mayr
|
|
|
What are the three basic characteristics of the criterion of position?
|
topographic position, geometric position and position in relation to other parts of the body
|
|
|
What can be used to assess the topographic position?
|
Cartesian coordinate system
|
|
|
What does the criterion of special similarity depend on?
|
similar embryological development
|
|
|
Which two criteria form one major criterion?
|
criterion of position and criterion of special similarity
|
|
|
What does the criterion of continuance through intermediate forms imply?
|
the more sets of characters shared, the more likely the homologies exist
|
|
|
What is catalogues?
|
computer cataloguing in an effort to automate part of the cuartorial process (receiving the specimens and making sure they do not deteriorate)
|
|
|
what are biochemical characters?
|
data including estimates of the genetic diversity of structural enzymes and proteins, and direct assessment of the structure of DNA and RNA.
|
|
|
What is electrophoresis?
|
an array of techniques which separates various enzymes by their molecular weights and/or electric charges; can use to study gene frequencies and statistical analysis of populations; can contribute to decisions about species level
|
|
|
What are alloenzymes?
|
structural enzymes
|
|
|
What is anagenetic evolution?
|
evolutionary change along a single lineage.
|
|
|
What is cladogenetic evolution?
|
when evolutionary differences arise in divergent or separate lineages via a common ancestor.
|
|
|
What is tokogenetics?
|
Nonhierarchical genetic relationships among individuals; arising by sexual reproduction. The relationships among individuals within a sexually reproducing species are known as tokogenetic relationships, and the graphical depictions of tokogeny are called geneologies or networks.
|
|
|
What is phylogeography?
|
is the study of the historical processes that may be responsible for the contemporary geographic distributions of individuals. This is accomplished by considering the geographic distribution of individuals in light of the patterns associated with a gene genealogy. This term was introduced to describe geographically structured genetic signals within and among species.
|
|
|
What is a classification systematic publication?
|
type of synopsis since they present a synopsis of the author's views on the taxonomic relationships among groups
|
|
|
What is a key systematic publication?
|
usually found in revisionary publications- usually for a specific region ex. "HOW TO KNOW"
|
|
|
What is a faunistic and floristic studies systematic publication?
|
monographs (scholarly piece of writing on a specific topic)of specific areas rather than of parricular groups.
ex. species that inhabit area b. distributional patterns c. keys to identify species covered d. history of work in area |
|
|
What is an atlas systematic publicatioN?
|
may include illustrations or maps of the species of a particular taxonomic group, geographic area and so on- aid for identification
|
|
|
What is a catalogue systematic publicatioN?
|
a tabulation of species detailing a varying amount of information- may include reference to types, original description, synonyms and range
|
|
|
What are checklist systematic publication?
|
a list of species for a particular group or a particular group ina specific geographic range
|
|
|
What is a handbook systematic publication?
|
designed to enable nonspecialists or layperson to identify major groups or species occupying political orgeographic regions
|
