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79 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Political Theory
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The discipline of political theory is about the relationships between concepts in relation to normative ideas. The relationship to normative ideas. Normative means the ideal.
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John Rawls
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He is probably the most important political philosopher of the 20th century. Harvard professor. Wrote book in 1971. “Justice is Fairness”
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Problem of Order
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How can we construct society so humans may coexist in a peaceful way? "Practical role arising from divisive political conflict and need to settle the problem of order.
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"Collective Orientation"
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What do we together seek to do about relationships between us and society
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"Reconciliation"
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Political society is not a community of shared belief. We are not a community of shared belief. What is reasonable to expect from a political space? Example: First Amendment Rights. It is legal to stage a demonstration of any hateful ideas. This is not legal in France or Germany.
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"Realistic Utopianism"
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it conceives that there is an ideal society even though we fight for resources. Forward looking.
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Aristotle fun facts
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384B – 322 BC. Born in Macedonia. At 18 he journeyed to Athens and studied under Plato. 3 biggest figures in ancient Greek philosophy: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
Socrates takes hemlock because he is corrupting the youths. Plato creates his academy to teach Greeks to be philosophers. Plato wants to continue educating other philosophers using Socratic methods but also seeks to educate future rulers, like Alexander the Great. His writings focus largely on citizenship when he himself was not a citizen of Athens. |
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Aristotle's big questions
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o What is the nature of the good life? Life of a good state.
o What are the Mechanisms that make it possible? |
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Phronesis
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Practical Wisdom in deliberating what the nature of the good life is
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Nicomachean Ethics
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study of what is good. The way he tries to find this is asks what is valuable and separates into 3 categories: External Goods, Goods of the Body, Goods of the mind. If you look at these 3 categories, if asked why you like these things it ultimately comes back to goods of the mind.
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Telos
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The end and ultimate goal.
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Theory of Ideal Forms
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The idea that there is an alternate world of perfect forms from which we reach the concept of ideal beauty. An example may be a perfect triangle.
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Highest Form of Man (end for which all men should strive)
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o Self sufficient (NOT independent)
o Autonomy- Ability to set goals for oneself. |
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Autonomy
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Ability to set and reach goals. Usually this implies that you have the right qualities of character… otherwise your qualities of character are impairing you. You also need… Reason! This means identifying effective means and separating the real from the ephemeral.
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Under what conditions is the good life possible?
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State is prior to the individual. Man can reach telos through the state. To take away the state you take a possibilities for fully realized individual.
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What are Aristotle's 3 main arguments?
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1. Happiness is the satisfaction of goals/desires
2. Human beings are intentionally pursuing happiness 3. State is the social form that defines self-sufficiency |
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Theory of the Soul
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o Reasonable part of the soul – intellectual
o Persuadable part of the soul – moral |
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To Aristotle, what mechanisms make it possible to live the good life?
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There must be a constitution.
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Constitution
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Organization of offices in the state and identifies a community goal.
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Purpose of State for Aristotle
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To enable citizens to live together
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What are departures from Aristotle’s Ideal state.
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• Citizens and rulers may be mistaken in what makes for the good life
• They may pursue some goods at the expense of enabling all citizens to live a good life |
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What is Aristotle's Ideal form of government?
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Polity
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With one ruler what is the true and perverted form of government?
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o True is kingship.
o Perverted is tyranny |
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With few rulers, what are the true and perverted forms of government?
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True is Aristocracy
Perverted is Oligarchy |
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With many rulers what are the true and perverted forms of government?
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True is polity. Perverted is Democracy.
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Why is polity Aristotle's favorite?
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• All citizens rule and are ruled in turn
• Everyone has a share of political power. Different organs of government are controlled by different sections of the populations (rich and poor) • Fusion of Oligarchy and Democracy so neither rich nor poor have complete control. |
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Is there equivalence between the citizens and the state in relation of goodness to Aristotle?
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Aristotle’s answer is roughly yes.
• There is no structural “aggregation problem”: good state is state with good citizen • We get good citizens by making sure that we get good rulers |
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What are positive arguments for Aristotle's rule of law?
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• The relevant knowledge and virtues are additive (the many are better than the few). Intuition behind claim is that people will see matter from different angles.
o Modern scholars would argue that this is sometimes true but not always true. It has the potential to lead to mob mentality: groupthink. o Theory of elections (Solon): led to different interpretation of claim. Says citizens lack the virtues that would be necessary to govern themselves. But that he general population is good at finding those who are capable of handling job. • Denying power to many (even if poor creates a lot of enemies for the state. |
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Negative arguments for Aristotle's rule of law.
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o The multitude is more emotionally stable and less corruptible
o The Problem of succession even for the otherwise good kings. Page 71- Line 22. o Who will guard the guardians? Who are the good people? How do we find them? o Shouldn’t the kings friends rule as well. Says if king has advisors than in virtue of being people he trusts, they are equal to him. |
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Niccolo Machiavelli fun Fakts?
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1469-1527 – Age of Renaissance
Head of Secondary Chancellery – in charge of ambassadors Medici – a powerful family in Florence. Perceived as people who need to be pleased. And there comes a time that they are considered too powerful to be healthy. Conflist is at the core of Machiavelli’s time. Pope Julius the II The mirror of princes – the author is holding up mirror to prince Career opportunist? When Medeci’s return, Machiavelli is banished. Some attempted to recapture city. When caught, The culprits blame Machiavelli. Machiavelli is tortured, says nothing and is sent home. Republican or not? (Prince vs. Discourses on Livy)- The text is a decidedly republican work. o “Handbook of the republicans” o Deception, “trapping the prince” |
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What does Machiavelli cover in the Prince?
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1st part
1. Types of principalities 2. ways of acquiring and maintaining the rulership 2nd part) 1. theory of leadership 4 types of principalities 1. Hereditary 2. Ecclesiastical 3. Mixed – a. Good will of the inhabitants or the ruthlessness of the ruler. b. Similarities in law, customs, language, etc. c. Else: (Page 109. Line 27- set of advices to trap the Medici) • Complete destruction of regime • Set up ne laws • Engage in a direct rule • Recognizing problems early • Being able to fight a war if necessary • Supporting weak neighbors and discourage strong ones 4. Civil |
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What two key concepts does Machiavelli find important to gain and maintain the state?
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• Fortuna – good fortune
• Virtu – Abilities and skills that correspond to one’s status – mojo o Vir – man o Virtis - manly o Vir vitutis – The manly man – the man who’s manliness (virtu) is present. Cesare Borgia – vir vitutis – grabs the fortune |
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What would a humanist argue for in a rule? (as opposed to Machiavelli)
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• Honesty
• Magnanimity (kindness) • Liberality |
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What is most important to Machiavelli's Prince?
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Above all things, not to be hated and despised by the people. Morally flexible? Goal is to maintain state so you can’t always be morally grounded.
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Machiavelli v Cicero
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• Ways of man and the ways of animal
• What qualities? o Liberality o Loved or feared? It is safer to be feared than loved. o Keeping promise. Cicero says keeping promise is part of Virvirtutous. Machiavelli says screw you. Page 138. Line 24. o Violence and Fraud 138. Line 5. … Page 144 line 22… |
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Machiavelli on human nature
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o It should not be expected to act with morality because historical account of human nature shows that humans are selfish.
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Vice as regrettable necessity
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o Never says bad is good or vice versa… instead argues that the morally good may get in the way of maintaining the state.
o “Dirty hands” problem. Making morally questionable decisions for the right reasons. How do separate those where wickedness comes easily from those who are reluctant. |
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What does Machiavelli believe about being taught humanist values?
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• Taught humanist values for good reason. But it is worth suffering the moral loss as prince for ultimate good. Only breaking of code when necessary.
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Machiavelli v Aristotle on proper public morality.
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Aristotle sees little conflict in what to expect from citizens and rulers. Good leaders are like citizens with wisdom and leadership skills.
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The aggregation problem
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how do we transit from individual actions to the properties of states?
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Was Machiavelli a republican?
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Decidedly yes. The text is decidedly a republican work. Seen as a “handbook for republicans” and as a deceptive way of “trapping the prince.”
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What are the types of principalities?
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o Hereditary
o Ecclesiastical o Mixed o Civil |
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What does a mixed principality need to work
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a. Good will of the inhabitants or the ruthlessness of the ruler.
b. Similarities in law, customs, language, etc. c. Else: (Page 109. Line 27- set of advices to trap the Medici) • Complete destruction of regime • Set up ne laws • Engage in a direct rule • Recognizing problems early • Being able to fight a war if necessary • Supporting weak neighbors and discourage strong ones |
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What are the two key concepts someone needs to maintain state for Machiavelli?
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Fortuna and virtu
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Fortuna
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Good fortune
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Virtu
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Abilities and skills that correspond to one’s status (mojo so to speak)
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What is vir vitutis?
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o Vir – man
o Virtis – manly o Vir virtutis – the manly man (the man who’s manliness [virtu]is present. |
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Who is Machiavelli’s example of the ultimate vir virtutis?
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Cesare Borgias. He grabs at the fortune.
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What’s safer? To be feared or loved?
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Feared! Duh!
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What does Machiavelli think of Human Nature
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it should not be expected to act with morality because historical account of human nature shows that humans are selfish.
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Dirty Hands problem
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Making morally questionable decisions for the right reasons. How do separate those where wickedness comes easily from those who are reluctant.
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Adam Smith Fun facts!!!
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Seen as father of modern economics. He was a Scottish philosopher and economist, 18th Century scholar, and writer on moral theory.
An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1775) Wealth of Nations Scotland goes from a place where nothing is worthwhile to a very important industrial center of Europe. |
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What was Adam Smith’s main goal?
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explaining reasons and circumstances affecting the economic wealth of nations.
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What are key determinants for the wealth of nations to Smith?
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skill of labor and proportion of usefully employed labor
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What did Smith’s contemporary mercantilists believe?
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Countries main resource is - a countries value is found in its resources.
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What are the 3 casual mechanisms Smith believes comes from a division of labor?
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o Increase in skill
o Save in transition time o Natural development of technologies |
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What are the two tangents of interpreting Smith?
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o One says through swapping process two people have demonstrated division of labor. From hoarding specific goods we have divided.
o The other says we are creatures that engage in economic activity with an eye for personal gain and utility. |
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In what ways do economic factors affect political and economic welfare?
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o Political stability
o Successful enforcement of law o Domestic peace |
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To smith, what’s good about vanity and self interest?
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they lead to superior political outcomes.
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Thomas Hobbes Fun Facts!
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Leviathan (1651): Early example of social contract theory. Written during the English Civil War which occurred from 1642-1651
Hobbes wrote that the civil war and situations identifies with a state of nature and the famous motto Bellum Omnium contra omnes (the war of all against all) could only be averted via a strong central government. Everything about humanity can be explained materialistically : except the soul or faculty for understanding things outside the mind. Hope, good and evil do not exist by Hobbes’ account. There is no reference to the notion of a greatest good. And notions of absolute good seem to be counter productive to Hobbes. However, a greatest evil, ie mass death or genocide, can have community oriented around this fear. Man’s natural state is a political community. And that our state of nature, as hobbes calls the anarchic condition, must be a war of all against all. Even when two men aren’t fighting, the must always be on guard. This makes it reasonable to pre-emptively attack one’s neighbor. Hobbes believes that the desire to avoid this nature forms the polestar of political reasoning. He suggests laws of nature (though he does not like the use of the word “law” because they can’t be enforced) Influenced by Euclid |
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Basic Algorithm for Hobbes’ Social Constructarianism
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1. Specify the position of choice (including the relevant faculties of the choosers)
2. Specify the alternatives from which the choices are made 3. Argue that a particular choice would be made when appropriately positioned chossers are faced with alternatives specified in 2. • Reasons for acceptance may vary across choosers • Subject to the expectation that others are making the corresponding choices as well 4. Social criticism: is the status quo regime one that would be chosen in 3? |
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What does Hobbes believe are the basic elements of human nature?
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• Desire for self preservation
• Felicity • Insatiability |
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Felicity
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a happiness with restriction. It is desirable to gain or maintain utility throughout a lifetime.
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Insatiability
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desire to get more throughout a lifetime. More what? More power. Money is not natural power… not physically powerful. Money is artificial power. Useful in maintaining felicity. How much power do we want? We want people to either have limited power or have an equal or lesser amount of power
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In Hobbes’ social conditions for humanity
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1. Scarcity
2. Equality - wants two categories: people that cannot be physically harmed (no one) and those who that seek power, felicity, and self preservation (everyone). a. Physical vulnerability 3. Interdependence 4. Uncertainty |
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Hobbes’ roles of reason
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1. When reasoning consistently, we can apprehend the natural condition of humanity
2. We can, then, apprehend the rational consequences of those conditions 3. Having done so, we can arrive at an evaluation of the set of options available to them for the improvement of their condition |
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For Hobbes, what would happen without state?
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State of war
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For Hobbes, what is the worst possible state?
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State of war
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For Hobbes, can a state with limited authority provide a stable resolution?
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No
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For Hobbes, what is the only state that can be rationally justified?
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The absolutist state
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What are the two casual mechanisms explaining state of nature = state of war
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Doctrine of anticipation and absence of neutral judges.
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Nash Equilibrium
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Set of strategies in which no player has incentive to deviate unilaterally.
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Explain the cover of Leviathan
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The body is many heads but the head is one.
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Hobbes and social contract
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social contract theory established the authority of anyone who was able to wield and hold power. If we imagine ourselves in a state of nature, he argued, with no government and no law to guide us but the law of nature, we will recognize that everyone is naturally equal and independent. But we should also recognize that this state of nature will also be a state of war, for the “restlesse desire for Power after power” that drives all of us will lead to “a warre of every man against every man
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Hobbes Unconditional Laws of Nature
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1. “To seek peace and follow it”
2. “By all means defend self” 3. People like justice |
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Hobbes Conditional Laws:
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• Be grateful for benefits received from others
• Be accommodating to others; • Be forgiving of others when the are repenting; • Acknowledge others as being of equal worth • Declare no or contempt for others. |
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3 features of Leviathan
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1. Absolute power
2. A product of the covenant between ourselves (not between us and the rulers.) 3. Objecting to the Leviathan is objecting to ourselves. page 201. Line 35 The authorization of arbitrariness. |
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How does Leviathan come about?
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Hobbes gives no argument for how… but to wonder… How could there be a social contract?
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What are critiques of Hobbes?
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1. Who will guard the guardian
2. Is self preservation really lexicographically prior to all else 3. Does divided government really lead to the state of war? a. In a commercial republic, politics may be less important b. Success in designing the instrumental structure: participation in the political process is itself a source of value for politicians |
