Study Of Language W&m 2011 Final

Front 1

Non-Concatenative Morphology

Back 1

Instead of clear affixes being added, the words themselves change to show change of meaning.

Front 2

Suppletion

Back 2

Complete replacement of the root

Front 3

Root Internal Change
(Ablaut)

Back 3

Phonological change in the root that causes a grammatical change
Ex: Gu:r 'stone' & gur 'stones'

Front 4

Umlaut

Back 4

Stress and tone change to indicate a grammatical contrast

Front 5

Templatic morphology

Back 5

inflection indicated by the vowels and patterns of consonants and vowels

Front 6

coercion

Back 6

when your brain will try to make sense of ungrammatical sentences

Front 7

Syntax

Back 7

how words combine into phrases. How phrases combine to form grammatical sentences.

Front 8

Miller's Research

Back 8

Shows that sounds are less important than words (Deals with syntax)

Front 9

Semantic Part of Speech definition problems

Back 9

Cross-linguistically the parts of speech do not make sense. ex: in gaelic, you'd say "john doctors not" to mean "john is not a doctor"
Doctor is a verb in gaelic, but noun in english

Front 10

Distributional P.O.S Definitions

Back 10

we determine P.O.S. by affixes attatched and context in the phrase. (Through distributions)
Note: P.O.S. have language-specific rules

Front 11

Morphological distributions

Back 11

affixes prefixes and suffixes

Front 12

syntactic distributions

Back 12

positions relate to nearby words

Front 13

noun distribution rule

Back 13

after determiners
subjects
negated by no
after adjectives
prepositions

Front 14

verb distribution rule

Back 14

inflection (-ed, -t, -s, -ing, -en, -ed)
follow auxillery verbs ("helping verbs")
SOMETIMES follow subjects; or follow often and frequently
modified by adverb 'very' sometimes

Front 15

adverb distribution rule

Back 15

can be modified by 'very'
harder to define
end in -ly generally
can be used comparatively on occasion (follow 'more')

Front 16

Open P.O.S.

Back 16

allow neologisms (new words)
express content
N, V, adj, adv

Front 17

Closed P.O.S.

Back 17

don't allow new additions
express function
prepositions, conjunctions, modals, auxiliaries determiners (articles), pronouns, among others

Front 18

Lexical P.O.S.s

Back 18

Usually open class with some exceptions
expresses the contentful/referential part of meaning (N (including pronouns), A, V)
All that is usually left when you speak telegraphically

Front 19

Functional P.O.S.s

Back 19

(closed class)
expresses the grammatical information in the sentence
the "glue" that holds the sentence together (P, T, C, D, Neg, Conj)

Front 20

Grammaticality Judgement

Back 20

The subconscious feeling that you get that something isn't right when something isn't grammatical
Not based on:
having heard the sentence before (frequency)
Meaningfulness (colorless green ideas sleep furiously)
Truth (lying would never be possible)

Front 21

The Head of a phrase

Back 21

the part of speech that heads the phrase is what names the phrase

Front 22

Argument Structure

Back 22

What the verb needs to be happy and complete
ex: Sleep cannot take an object, but must have a subject

Front 23

Intransitive verbs

Back 23

"single argument"
require only a subject
'I sleep'

Front 24

transitive verbs

Back 24

"double argument"
require a subject and object
'i love you'

Front 25

ditransitive verbs

Back 25

"triple argument"
require a subject, an object, and a location
'i put the book on the table'

Front 26

Noun Phrase Rules

Back 26

NP-> (D)(AP+)N(PP+)
Determiner, adjective/adverb phrase+, Noun, Prepositional phrase+

Front 27

Infinity

Back 27

Our grammar says go for it.
Keep building on the sentence. "This is the cat who kicked the rat who ate the fish who swims on the lake on the farm that Jack built.."

Front 28

Verb Phrase Rules

Back 28

VP->(AP+)V(NP)(AP+)(PP+)(AP+)

Front 29

Tense Phrase Rules

Back 29

Pretty much a sentence.
Have an NP and VP (Subject and Verb)
TP goes to NP VP

if there is a tense marker,
TP goes to NP T'
T' goes to T VP

Front 30

Prepositional Phrase Rules

Back 30

PP-> P NP

Front 31

Adj and Adv Phrase Rules

Back 31

AP->(AP) A

Front 32

Embedded Clauses (CP) Rules

Back 32

"That" and "if" are called complimentizers
CP->(C) TP
VP-> (AP+) V ({NP/CP}) (AP+)(PP+)(AP+)
"i asked [if mariana would eat the spaghetti]"

Front 33

Coordinating Claused (Coord P) Rules

Back 33

CoordP-> Coord XP
"and"

Front 34

Related Sentences

Back 34

Have the same meaning even though order and structure differ
Ex:
The heron chased the turtle
The turtle was chased by the heron

Front 35

Compositionality

Back 35

The meaning of a complex expression is determined by the meanings of its parts and their hierarchical relationship to each other
Ex: The dog chased the man with the stick

Front 36

Constituent

Back 36

The fundamental notion in syntax
The constituents is a group of words (or a single word) that function as a unit
-sisters of the same mother

Front 37

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Back 37

Linguistic relativism: The worldview of a culture is subtly conditioned by the structure of its language

Front 38

Language and culture

Back 38

cannot be separated
our language encodes our worldview metaphorically "grab a bite to eat, catch a train"
Is it culture that drives language or language that drives culture?

Front 39

Color Terms

Back 39

There should be the same number but differs culturally

Front 40

Semantics

Back 40

Word meaning.
Different type of meaning: signs, social context, symbollic/allegorical, emotive, linguistic (linguistic has different qualitative meaning & requires a grammatical system)

Front 41

Semiotics

Back 41

Meaning in general

Front 42

semantics (linguistic definition)

Back 42

literal interpretation

Front 43

pragmatics

Back 43

context & social situations contribution to language communicative intent of speaker

Front 44

Word meaning

Back 44

what you think of when you think of a word

Front 45

denotation

Back 45

the object or action in the real world that the word picks out

Front 46

Referent denotation

Back 46

thing picked out by utterance on an occasion (professor can refer to different people, depending on the class you are referring to)

Front 47

extension denotation

Back 47

SET of items that could possibly be the denotation (all "profs" that I have ever had)

Front 48

Intension/sense

Back 48

mental concept that is associated with a word
the possible things a word (or phrase) could describe
Dictionary definition: what's in your head

Front 49

Denotation

Back 49

Particular entity

Front 50

Sense

Back 50

Mental concept
There are words with a sense but no denotation.
Ex: hobbits, unicorns, jedi

Front 51

Connotation:

Back 51

Social, cultural or personal associations which a speaker may attach to a word
ex: summer might mean: vacation, beach, sun, fun or sunburn, humidity, hell

Front 52

Semantic features are generally denotative

Back 52

they give us information about the meaning of words as well as info about how we categorize the world.
semantic features help us figure out synonyms, antonyms and hyponyms.

Front 53

Synonymy

Back 53

different phonological words that have the same or very similar meanings.
ex: couch/sofa; boy/lad; attorney/lawyer.
Perfect synonyms are rare (if they exist at all)
differences in near synonyms may be due to dialect, register, speaker attitude

Front 54

Antonymy

Back 54

opposites in meaning. They will have some similar, at least 1 different

Front 55

complimentary antonymy

Back 55

either/or
dead vs alive, pass vs fail

Front 56

gradable antonymy

Back 56

not absolute
rich vs poor, hot vs cold, old vs young

Front 57

relational opposites antonymy

Back 57

relationships between movements
reverses: come vs go, up vs down
converses: above vs below; on vs under

Front 58

homonymy & polysemy

Back 58

unrelated senses of the same phonological/ortographic word

Front 59

homophones:

Back 59

same sound
red/read (past tense)
not/knot

Front 60

homographs:

Back 60

written same
read/read

Front 61

polysemes

Back 61

are when we have 2 distinct meanings for a word that is historically related
ex: diamond (gem) vs diamond (baseball)

Front 62

metonymy

Back 62

words that substitute an attribute of an object for the object itself
ex: pentagon to mean US military
suits to mean federal agents

Front 63

hyponym

Back 63

includes the meaning of another
ex: canary is a hyponym of bird
(bird is included in the discription of canary)

Front 64

Events

Back 64

have a clear beginning
alive and dead

Front 65

states

Back 65

are ongoing
being a female

Front 66

Compositional Semantics

Back 66

how we compute the meaning of the sentence. The meaning of the phrase and sentences.
This is the truth value of the sentence
tp NP VP
pink elephants.
if denotated meaning is a member of the VP then TP is true, otherwise it is false.

Front 67

Truth Conditions

Back 67

If you knwo that meaning of a sentence you can determine what you need to know to determine if it is true/false
If you use non-real things (unicorns, Yoda) you must take that into account (unless discussing in the context of book of movie)

Front 68

Argument structure

Back 68

Look for what is wrong.
All verbs need to be "HAPPY" and must have all of their arguments filled
ex of bad arguments: "I put the book" and "i slept the dog with my foot"

Front 69

Semantic rules

Back 69

Agent
Theme
Location
Instrument
Goal
Source

Front 70

Semantic Rules
Agent

Back 70

doer.
initator of the actions

Front 71

Semantic Rules
theme

Back 71

done about/around object or individual moved by the action (general object role)

Front 72

Semantic Rules
Location

Back 72

The action is done here

Front 73

Semantic Rules
Instrument

Back 73

the action is done with this- secondary cause of event

Front 74

Semantic Rules
Goal

Back 74

Done in this direction
entity toward which the event is directed

Front 75

Semantic Rules
Source

Back 75

done from this- entity from which something is moved by the event , or from which the event originates

Front 76

Pragmatics

Back 76

The study of meaning in context
much of what language means is dependent upon its use in particular situations
"context" is everything about the situation in which language is used, except for the words

Front 77

Context

Back 77

physical/social/situational

Front 78

Productivity

Back 78

term in linguistics that describes the fact that language is creative and speakers can always produce and understand new utterances

Front 79

"situational context"

Back 79

nonlinguistic elements that comprise the setting of the phrase or sentence to be interpreted

Front 80

Diexis

Back 80

when the meaning of the word is entirely determined by the physical context in which a word is uttered (you vs you depending on who)

Front 81

Time diexis

Back 81

now, then, next week

Front 82

place diexis

Back 82

there, here, next door

Front 83

"linguistic context"

Back 83

the language preceding the phrase or sentence to be interpreted

Front 84

Direct speech acts

Back 84

when the speech act matches the sentence type

Front 85

interrogative

Back 85

question

Front 86

statement

Back 86

assertion

Front 87

imperative

Back 87

command

Front 88

performative

Back 88

changes the world
ex: you're fired

Front 89

indirect speech act

Back 89

involve situations where the sentence type does not match the speech act (indirect for politeness)
ex: interrogative to make a request
NOTE: euphemisms fall under indirect speech

Front 90

Speech act theory

Back 90

JL Austin, John Searle: saying something is doing something

Front 91

Locution

Back 91

The "sense" of the utterance
literal and non ambiguous

Front 92

Illocution

Back 92

the speech act performed by the utterance
performative, declarative, interrogative, exclamative

Front 93

Perlocution

Back 93

the effect of the utterance

Front 94

entailments

Back 94

things that are necessarily true if the sentence is true.
(relations to locutionary force of the utterance)

Front 95

implicatures

Back 95

things IMPLIED by speaker due to what speaker said
not literal-inferred by listener
do not relate directly to the truth of the utterance

Front 96

presuppositions

Back 96

things that are assumed to be true
"ex" how long since you stopped beating your wife.
hard to negate

Front 97

accommodation

Back 97

means accepts and moves on
when we accommodate we incorporate the presuppositions into our current worldview without overtly questioning them

Front 98

Why do we accommodate?

Back 98

Conversation is hugely underdetermined: therefore speakers must cooperate in order to sucessfully communicate

Front 99

Theory of mind

Back 99

what you know about the person interprets what they mean when they say things

Front 100

Cooperative principle

Back 100

when you're talking with someone, say what should be said in a way that the other person can understand

Front 101

Grice's 4 Maxims

Back 101

Relevance
Quantity
Quality
Manner

Front 102

Relevance

Back 102

Be relevant

Front 103

Quantity

Back 103

be only as informative as required

Front 104

quality

Back 104

say what you believe to be true or adequately supported

Front 105

manner

Back 105

be clear; avoid excess, ambiguity and obscurity

Front 106

flouting

Back 106

violation of the cooperative principle on purpose with the intent of conveying information
because hearers expect ppl to obey maxims, obvious violations can be used to convey more subtle information
used for irony or sarcasm often

Front 107

violating

Back 107

no intent for the person to comprehend you're not obeying
lying or in advertising.

Front 108

Taboo

Back 108

things you cannot say.
all languages have them
often based on powerful things, or things that culture deems scary (animals, death, gods, sex, feces)

Front 109

obscene

Back 109

things you shouldn't say

Front 110

euphemism

Back 110

the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasing.
used in place of swear words

Front 111

Synchronic Grammar

Back 111

a look at grammar at a particular slice in time

Front 112

diachronic grammar

Back 112

looks at grammar change through time

Front 113

unconditional merger

Back 113

two sound that are "different" become "the same" ex: caught, cot

Front 114

conditional merger

Back 114

who "different" sounds sound the same, but only in a specific environment.
ex: /i/ and /e/ sound in pin and pen is due to being before a nasal

Front 115

chain shift

Back 115

coordinated, typically.
step change in the pronunciation of sounds in (at least one) variety of language

Front 116

Historical linguistics within a language

Back 116

used to understand the grammatical history of a particular language

Front 117

Historical linguistics across languages

Back 117

to understand the historical relationships among the language and varieties existent at a point in time

Front 118

Gjoseph Greenburg and "Protoworld Hypothesis"

Back 118

found out stuff from extralinguistic evidence, as linguistic evidence. cognates and correspondences

Front 119

Historical and Comparative linguistics

Back 119

reconstruction, proto-languages, proto-forms, cognates, and comparative method

Front 120

Related languages

Back 120

if two languages are related, they were once the same

Front 121

Genetic relation Proposal

Back 121

Assumes “immediate breakoffs”
Doesn’t account for geographic language contact
(Sprachbunds)
Doesn’t account for internal dialects
Doesn’t account for cases like Macedonian which is
a bit like Greek, a bit like Bulgarian and a bit like
Serbian…
Also there are language isolates

Front 122

Cooperative method
And its assumptions

Back 122

Historical linguists look for regular sound correspondences in cognate words in languages that may be related.
Assumption 1: regular sound changes do not occur accidentally
Assumption 2: cognates are more likely to occur in "core vocabulary"

Front 123

Total Correspondence

Back 123

When set of words being compared for historical similarities are the same

Front 124

Majority rules

Back 124

the rule that applies that if the majority of the words are the same, that is the "right" one

Front 125

Natural development

Back 125

which one would occur naturally?
Look for "weird" sounds

Front 126

Lexical Borrowing

Back 126

Words borrowed from other languages and assimilated into the language

Front 127

Adustratal relationships

Back 127

2 speakers in contact sit with equally prestigious languages, their languages are ADUSTRATAL
ex: french and english in canada are in equal borrowing

Front 128

Superstratum

Back 128

the higher prestige of languages in a given culture
Is the DOMINANT group

Front 129

Substratum

Back 129

the lower prestigious of languages in a given culture
Is the NON-DOMINANT

Front 130

Structural borrowing vs lexical borrowing

Back 130

words can be borrowed with very little contact, but structure requires a great deal of contact to be influential (coexistence)

Front 131

bilingualism

Back 131

(competent in both languages) requires high intensity of contact

Front 132

Language shift

Back 132

occurs when there is extensive, long-term contact between superstrate and substrate languages

Front 133

Language death

Back 133

when no more native speakers of a language exist.
occur when all the users of a language die
when children stop learning them
when they have increasingly limited sphere of use

Front 134

Pidgin

Back 134

language used in trade situations. invented lingua franca
used when speakers of distinct languages come into contact with one another and share no common language.
they often share:
CV syllables, no complex construction (embedded clauses), little inflectional markings, small vocab, SVO, generally one lexifer language (the superstrate)

Front 135

Creole

Back 135

A pidgin that has become the first language of a generation.
All creoles have remarkably similar syntax and morphology, no matter the original language.

Front 136

Cross cultural "baby talk"

Back 136

different ways parents "speak" for babies. America vs Kalui vs Samoa-Western

Front 137

Similarities in "baby talk" cross-culturally

Back 137

despite varying cultural beliefs, there are some similarites
all go through similar stages at similar ages
acquisition appears to proceed in a similar order

Front 138

Behaviorism & Skinner

Back 138

Skinner claimed that children start with a blank slate and respond to stimuli.
Must have positive rewards for correct use and negative punishments for incorrect use (this does NOT happen)
also relies on child hearing everything before they say it

Front 139

Innateness & Language acquisition device

Back 139

LAD
Chomsky claimed that humans are pre-programmed (biologically wired) to acquire language
language is thus uniquely human

Front 140

Poverty of Stimulus in behaviorism

Back 140

not enough info in what a young child hears for them to deduce all of the grammatical relations we understand without there being some sort of starting point.
This starting point is the LAD
Supporting point is the "I goed and I wented" phase of speaking

Front 141

How children DO NOT learn language

Back 141

Cognitive developement and language learning are not related

Front 142

Critical Period Hypothesis

Back 142

There is reason to believe that there is a biological deadline for the acquisition of language

Front 143

Evidence for Critical period hypothesis

Back 143

Wild boy of Aveyron
Genie
Late signers

Front 144

How kids might learn language

Back 144

Babies can learn new words in 2 minutes- called STATISTICAL LEARNING
applying rule to unheard syllable patterns is called RULE LEARNING

Front 145

Newborns (0-2 months)

Back 145

non-speech sounds like crying and fussing
vegetative sounds like burping and gurgling
have a large tongue

Front 146

2-4 Months

Back 146

cooing: usually in response to social interaction
Som velar consonants are present (g and k) and syllable-like utterances
laughter (around 2 months)
use crying to communicate

Front 147

4-6 Months

Back 147

vocal play:
more consonants and vowels produced.
child explores relationship between motor movements and sounds produced
clearer syllable-like utterances with prolongued segments (mmmmmma, maaaaaaaa)
may produce some sounds not in the ambient language

Front 148

6-9 Months

Back 148

canonical babbling: (major landmark) (syllabic babbling)
real syllables are present
syllables produced in a reduplicated series of the same consonant and vowel, called REDUPLICATED BABBLING (mama, baba, mimimi)
Timing of uttering is closer (not identical) to adults
rhythmic banging that coincides with sounds.

Front 149

9-12 Months

Back 149

varigated babbling:range of consonants and vowels expands
syllables composed of different consonants/vowel combinations [mamido, gudaku]
prosody becomes apparent, they sound like they are speaking, but no real words are present
protowords

Front 150

Proto words

Back 150

invented words that function consistently

Front 151

10-15 months

Back 151

when a child's first words are produced. at this time babies generally respond context-appropriate to many words

Front 152

12 months

Back 152

average baby knows the meaning of ~50-100 words but may produce only 5-10
in first few months they add only ~8-10 a month

Front 153

18 months

Back 153

average child has reached a vocab of ~50 words or more
beginning of a "word Spurt"

Front 154

Word Spurt

Back 154

when children add ~22-37 new words per month
by end of the word spurt (the "whats that" phase) they produce ~300 words

Front 155

by 6 years

Back 155

children have learned ~13000-14000 words averaging about 9 new words a day from 18 months on

Front 156

underextension

Back 156

the meaning of a word is more restrictive than the adult meaning
ex: kitty only means the house cat

Front 157

overextension

Back 157

the meaning of a word is more inclusive than the adult meaning
ex: dog means anything with four legs, to include a table
*They know they don't know the right word, so they borrow the word that they DO know that closest represents the object.
also, give info on how they categorize their world

Front 158

overextension semantic features, prototypes and functions

Back 158

semantic features: dog=any animal with 4 legs
prototype= moon used for moon, half cheerios, hangnail
functions: ball=frisby or any toy they throw

Front 159

Segmenting problem

Back 159

deciding what set of sounds is a word.
words are not said in isolation very often, instead they come as part of the sentece.

Front 160

Mondegreens:

Back 160

misheard words (shows segmenting problems, and how they persist even in adults
laid him on the green becomes lady mondegreen

Front 161

Clue 2: whole object bias

Back 161

children look at the whole part first, not the individual.
that is why they are surprised when things break apart

Front 162

Clue 1: follow the gaze of the person talking

Back 162

whole object bias

Front 163

Clue 3: mutual exclusivity bias

Back 163

do you know a word for some of the objects present already? if you have a duck a rabbit a cow and a parrot, and they know all the other animals except parrot, they'll know to pick out the parrot as parrot

Front 164

clue4: taxonomic bias

Back 164

if you only see things you know the names of, you might give up your mutual exclusivity bias and try assuming that the new word is a name for a class of things that INCLUDE the things you see

Front 165

Clue 5: meronymic bias

Back 165

if a child sees a cat and knows "cat" he might give up "whole object" bias and assume the new word refers to some part of "cat"

Front 166

mapping problem

Back 166

when showing a child a complicated picture, how do you explain it? (think of magician with rabbit)

Front 167

L1 Language

Back 167

language(s) you learn from birth on

Front 168

L2 Langauge

Back 168

Language(s) you learned later starting after 5ish

Front 169

L3 Language

Back 169

Language(s) you learned distinctly after you learned your (L2)s

Front 170

Simultanious bilingualism

Back 170

learning 2 language FROM BIRTH (from birth is key) there is no accent in either language
1/2 of all children in the world are exposed to 2 or more languages from birth

Front 171

Key factors in simultanious bilingualism

Back 171

quality of input
amount of input
usefulness of the languages
views of the 2 languages (prestige affect this)
personality

Front 172

key factors of sequential bilingualism

Back 172

understanding what is already known -L1
Understanding what is being learned- L2
many researchers believe that L2 learners initially have an inter language (IL) grammar

Front 173

Transfer errors

Back 173

in L2 learning, features (phonological, morphological, etc) of L1 are carried to interlanguage learner
Called language transfer
think pronunciation

Front 174

Developmental errors

Back 174

Happen similar to L1 learning errors (think goed and wented in children)
but in L2 language learners, they also have transfer errors

Front 175

Fossilization

Back 175

sometimes L2 learners reach a certain point in development, beyond which no further learning takes place (does not happen in L1)