Study Guide For Test #2

Front 1

Osteogenic cell

Back 1

"genic = producing"
The formation and development of bone

Front 2

Osteoblast

Back 2

"blast = bud, sprout"
Forms bone matrix
Form the tissue and minerals that give bone its strength.

Front 3

Osteocyte

Back 3

"cytes = cells"
Maintains bone tissue
Mature bone cell
Most abundant

Front 4

Osteoclast

Back 4

"clast = breakdown"
Functions in resorption
Breakdown of bone matrix

Front 5

Perforating (Volmann's) canal

Back 5

Microscopic structures found in compact bone.
Run within the osteons which are perpendicular to the Haversian canals.

Front 6

Intramembranous ossification

Back 6

"intra = within, membranous = membrane"
Bone forms directly on or w/in loose fibrous C.T membranes.

Front 7

Steps of Intramembranous ossification

Back 7

1. Development of center of ossification
2. Calcification
3; Formation of trabeculae
4. Development of periosteum

Front 8

Paget's disease

Back 8

>Abnormal acceleration of remodeling process
>The excessive breakdown and formation of bone tissue
>Cause bone to weaken, resulting in bone pain, arthritis, deformities, and fractures.

Front 9

Factors affecting bone growth

Back 9

>IGFs - insulinlike growth factors
>Sex steroids - estrogens, androgens
>Responsible for inc. osteoblast activity and synthesis of bone matrix
>Sudden "growth spurt"

Front 10

Communited frature

Back 10

"com = together, minuted = crumbled"
Bone splinters at site of impact.
Smaller bone fragments lie between the two main fragments

Front 11

Colles' fracture

Back 11

Fracture of distal end of lateral forearm bone (radius).
The distal end of fragment is displaced posteriorly

Front 12

Stress fracture

Back 12

Series of microscopic fissures in bone that forms w/out any evidence.

Front 13

Steps in bone repair

Back 13

1. Formation of hematoma
2. Bony callus formation
3. Fibrocartilaginous callus formation
4. Bone remodeling

Front 14

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

Back 14

Most important hormone that regulates Ca2+ exchange between bone and bloow.

Front 15

Calcitriol

Back 15

Hormone that promotes absorption of calcium from the gastrointestinal tract

Front 16

Calcitonin

Back 16

Inhibits activity of osteoclasts
Speeds up blood Ca2+ uptake by bone
Accelerates Ca2+ deposition into bones

Front 17

Describe in detail the negative feedback mechanism of regulating blood calcium levels with emphasis on the role that osteoblast and osteoclast activity is affected by hormones.

Back 17

The parathyroid gland releases the parathyroid hormone when blood levels of ionic calcium decline. It stimulates osteoclasts, the bone breakers, to destroy bone matrix, releasing calcium into the bloodstream. When calcium concentration in the blood rises to normal levels, the stimulus for parathyroid hormone release ends. When blood calcium levels rise, calcitonin is released by the thyroid gland. Calcitonin stimulates calcium deposits in bone and inhibits osteoclasts from breaking down bone. Osteoblasts are stimulated to make more bone tissue. As these things happen blood calcium levels reduce to normal and the stimulus ends.

Front 18

Osteoporosis

Back 18

"por = passageway, osis = condition"
A condition of porous bones.
Bone resorption outpaces bone deposition.
Mainly due to calcium depletion.

Front 19

How many bones in a human adult skeleton?

Back 19

206

Front 20

How many bones are in the axial skeleton?

Back 20

80

Front 21

How many bones are in the appendicular skeleton?

Back 21

126

Front 22

Long bones

Back 22

Greater length than width.
Consist of a shaft and variable # of extremities (ends)

Front 23

Short bones

Back 23

Somewhat cub-shaped.
Nearly equal in length and width
e.g: sternum, ribs, scapulae

Front 24

Irregular bones

Back 24

Complex shapes
Cannot be grouped into any of the other categories
Eg: vertebrae, some facial bones

Front 25

Sesamoid bones

Back 25

Shaped like sesame seed
Develop in certain tendons where there is considerable friction
e.g kneecaps

Front 26

Sutural bones

Back 26

"sutur = seams"
Small bones located within joints, between certain cranial bones
Thin layer of dense fibrous C.T that unites only bones of the skull

Front 27

Syntharthrosis

Back 27

"syn = together"
Immovable joint

Front 28

Ampiarthrosis

Back 28

"amphi = on both sides"
A slightly movable joint

Front 29

Darthrosis

Back 29

Freely movable joint
All are synovial joints

Front 30

Fibrous joints

Back 30

Lack synovial cavity
Articulating bones are held very closely together by fibrous C.T

Front 31

Synostosis

Back 31

"os = bone"
Bony joint - there is a complete fusion of bone across the suture line
e.g. Metopic suture between left/right sides of frontal bone

Front 32

Syndesmosis

Back 32

"syndesmo = band or ligament"
A fibrous joint in which, there is a greater distance between articulating bones and more fibrous C.T

Front 33

Types of Fibrous joints

Back 33

Sutures
Syndesmoses
Gomphoses

Front 34

Types of Cartilagenous Joints

Back 34

synchondroses
Symphyses

Front 35

Interosseous membrane

Back 35

Articulating bones united by a substantial sheet of dense irregular C.T

Front 36

Examples of syndesmosis

Back 36

Distal tibiofibular joint - where anterior tibiofibular ligament connects the tibia and fibula.

Interosseous membrane between the parallel borders of the tiba and fibula.

Front 37

Synchondrosis

Back 37

"chondro = cartilage"
A cartilaginous joint in which the connecting material is hyaline catilage.
e.g epiphyseal plate that connects epiphysis and daphysis

Front 38

Symphsis

Back 38

"growing together"
A cartilaginous joint in which the ends of the carticulating bones are covered with hyaline cartilage, but broad, flat disc of fibrocartilage connects the bones.

Front 39

Pivot joint

Back 39

Consists of a cylinder of one bone rotating within a ring formed by another bone

Head of radius and radial notch of ulna

Front 40

Saddle joint

Back 40

Allows the next greatest amount of movement.
The bones are shaped like a horseback rider sitting in a saddle.

e.g trapezium of carpus (wrist) and metacarpal of thumb

Front 41

Condyloid joint

Back 41

An Ellipsoid is an oval-shaped process of one bone fits into a roughly elliptical cavity of the other.

e.g. between radius and scaphoid and lunate bones of carpus (wrist)

Front 42

Pubofemoral ligament

Back 42

thickened portion of the articular capsule that extends from the pubic part of the rim of the acetabulum to the neck of the femur.

Front 43

Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL)

Back 43

A primary stabilizing ligament within the center of the knee joint that prevents hyperextension and excessive rotation of the joint.

Front 44

Rheumatism

Back 44

Painful disorder of the supporting structures of the body.
Not caused by infection or injury.

Front 45

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA)

Back 45

An autoimmune disease in which the immune system of the body attacks its own tissues: cartilage and joints.

Front 46

Rheumatoid arthritis is characterized by:

Back 46

1. Inflammation of the joint (swelling, pain)
2. Loss of function
3. Usually occurs bilaterally - if one wrist is affected, other is too.

Front 47

Osteoarthritis (OA)

Back 47

A degenerative joint disease in which joint cartilage is gradually lost.

Results from aging, irritation of joints and wear and tear.

Front 48

This type of arthritis primarily affects the synovium (lining of the joint).

Back 48

Rheumatoid

Front 49

he most common type of arthritis is

Back 49

osteoarthritis

Front 50

This type of arthritis is also known as wear-and-tear arthritis

Back 50

Osteoarthritis

Front 51

Degenerative arthritis or degenerative joint disease are other names for

Back 51

Osteoarhritis

Front 52

Joint damage which occurs with bilateral symmetry (same joint on both sides of body) is characteristic of

Back 52

Rheumatoid arthritis

Front 53

A pattern of joint disease involving the small joints of the hands and wrists is characteristic of

Back 53

Rheumatoid arthritis

Front 54

This type of arthritis is considered an inflammatory, autoimmune disease

Back 54

Rheumatoid arthritis

Front 55

Prolonged (lasting 30 minutes or more) morning stiffness is characteristic of:

Back 55

Rheumatoid arthritis

Front 56

Slow or gradual onset of joint pain is consistent with

Back 56

Osteoarthritis

Front 57

Morning stiffness which lasts no more than 30 minutes, and joint pain which typically is worse later in the day after repetitive use of the joint are characteristic of

Back 57

Osteoarthritis

Front 58

Xray evidence of bone spurs or osteophytes are consistent with

Back 58

Osteoarthritis

Front 59

Heberden's nodes and Bouchard's nodes are characteristic of

Back 59

Osteoarthritis

Front 60

Fatigue, fever, loss of energy, and malaise are also symptoms of

Back 60

Rheumatoid arthritis

Front 61

Ulnar deviation and wrist subluxation are common deformities seen with

Back 61

Rheumatoid arthritis

Front 62

Though either form of arthritis can occur at any age, this form of arthritis usually affects older people.

Back 62

Osteoarthritis

Front 63

Gouty Arthritis

Back 63

Painful inflammation of the big toe and foot caused by defects in uric acid metabolism resulting in deposits of the acid and its salts in painful inflammation of the big toe and foot caused by defects in uric acid metabolism.

Front 64

Lyme disease

Back 64

A disease that affects the joints, nervous system and heart that is transmitted by the deer tick, and is caused by a parasite known as a Borrelia

Front 65

Ankylosing spind

Back 65

"ankylos = bent; spondylos = vertebrae"
Inflammatory disease
The bones of the spine to grow together

Front 66

Electrical excitability

Back 66

Property of muscle and nerve cells
Ability to respond to certain stimuli by producing electrical signals
e.g. Action potential

Front 67

Contractibility

Back 67

Ability of muscle tissue to contract forcefully when stimulated by action potential

Front 68

Extensibility

Back 68

Ability of muscle to stretch without being damaged.

Front 69

Elasticity

Back 69

Ability of muscle tissue to return to its original length and shape after contraction or extension.

Front 70

Properties of muscle tissue

Back 70

Electrical excitability
Contractibility
Extensibility
Elasticity

Front 71

Perimysium

Back 71

"peri = around"
Surrounds groups of 10 to 100 or more individual muscle fibers, separating them into bundles.

Front 72

Fascicles

Back 72

"little bundles"

Front 73

Tendon

Back 73

C.T layers that extend beyond the muscle fibers

Front 74

Aopneurosis

Back 74

"apo = from; neur = a sinew"
C.T elements that extend as a braod, flat layer.
e.g. The epicrania aponeurosis on top of the skull.

Front 75

Sarcolemma

Back 75

"sarc = flesh; lemma = sheath"
The plasma membrane of a muscle cell.

Front 76

T (transverse) Tubules

Back 76

Thousands of tiny invaginations of the sarcolemma.
Only found in skeletal and cardiac tissue.

Front 77

Sarcoplasm

Back 77

The cytoplasm of a muscle fiber.
Includes a substantial amount of glycogen.

Front 78

Myoglobin

Back 78

A heme-containing pigment in muscle cells that binds and stores oxygen.

Front 79

Muscular atrophy

Back 79

"a = without; trophy = nouish"
Wasting away of muscles.

Front 80

Muscular phypertrophy

Back 80

"hyper = above or excessive"

An increase in diameter of muscle fibers owing the production of more myofibrils, mitochondria, sarcoplasmic reticulum and so fort.

Front 81

Filaments

Back 81

Two types of small structures within myofibrils

Front 82

Sarcomere

Back 82

Defined as the segment between two neighbouring Z-lines

Front 83

Z discs

Back 83

The band in between the I bands) appears as a series of dark lines.

Front 84

A band

Back 84

The darker middle part of the sarcomere, which exends the entire length of the thick filaments.

Front 85

I band

Back 85

lighter, less dense area that contains the rest of the think filaments but no thick filaments

Front 86

H zone

Back 86

Center of each a band contains thick, but not think filaments.

Front 87

M line

Back 87

Supporting proteins that hold the thick filaments together at the center of the H zone.
At middle of sarcomers.

Front 88

Contractile proteins

Back 88

Myosin and Actin
They generate force during contraction

Front 89

Which protein forms the M line?

Back 89

Molecules of myeomesin

Front 90

Regulatory proteins

Back 90

Tropomyosin and tropnin
Help switch contraction on and off

Front 91

Structural proteins

Back 91

Titin, myomesin and dystrophin

Front 92

Most plentiful protein in skeletal muscle (after and myosin)

Back 92

Titan - Huge in size

Front 93

Sliding filament mechanism

Back 93

The sliding filament theory describes a process used by muscles to contract.

Front 94

How does sliding filament mechanism work?

Back 94

As thin filaments slide inward, the Z discs come closer together and the sarcomeres shortens.

The lengths of the individual thick and think filaments do not change.

Front 95

The contractile cycle

Back 95

1. ATP hydrolysis
2. Attachment of myosin to actin to form crossbridges
3. Power stroke
4. Detachment of myosin from actin

Front 96

ATP Hydrolysis

Back 96

Myosin heads hydrolyze ATP and become reoriented and energized

Front 97

Attachment of myosin to actin to form crossbridges

Back 97

Myosin heads bind to actin forming crossbridges

Front 98

Power Stroke

Back 98

Myosin heads rotate toward center of the sarcomer (power stroke)

Front 99

Detachment of myosin from actin

Back 99

As myosin heads bind ATP, the crossbridges detach from actin

Front 100

Excitation - Contraction Coupling

Back 100

An increase of Ca2+ concentration in the cytosol starts muscle contraction.

A decrease stops it.

Front 101

Active transport pumps

Back 101

Use ATP to constantly move Ca2+ from cytosol into the SR

Front 102

Rigor mortis

Back 102

Calcium ions leak out of sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Rigor begins 3 - 4 hours after death and last about 24 hours.

Front 103

Length Tension relationship

Back 103

Shows how the forcefulness of muscle contraction depends on the length of the sarcomeres within a muscle before contraction begins.

Front 104

Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ)

Back 104

point of contact between a motor neuron and a skeletal muscle cell.

Front 105

Synapse

Back 105

A gap between two neurons that functions as the site of information transfer from one neuron to another.

Front 106

Neurotransmitter

Back 106

First cell communicates with the second indirectly by releasing a chemical (such as acetylcholine or dopamine).

Front 107

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Back 107

A chemical in the brain that acts as a neurotransmitter.

Front 108

How does nerve impulse elicit a muscle action potential?

Back 108

1. Release of ACh
2. Activation of ACh receptors
3. Production of muscle action potential
4. Termination of ACh activity

Front 109

Release of ACh

Back 109

Arrival of nerve impulse at synaptic end bulbs causes many synaptic vesciels to undergo exocytosis.

Front 110

Activation of ACh receptors

Back 110

Binding of two molecules of ACh to the receptor opens the ion channel part of the ACh receptor.

Now NA+ can flow across membrane

Front 111

Production of muscle action potential

Back 111

The inflow of Na+ makes the inside of the muscle fiber more positively charged.

This triggers a muscle action potential

Front 112

Termination of ACh activity

Back 112

The effect of ACh binding lasts only briefly because ACh is rapidly broken down by acetylcholinesterase (AChE).

Front 113

Botulinum toxin

Back 113

Blocks exocytosis of synaptic vessicles at the NMJ.

Result: ACh is not released.
Muscle contraction doesn't occur.

Front 114

Production of ATP in muscle fibers

Back 114

there is little ATP, there is another phosphate compound stored in the muscles, creatine phosphate, which is formed by linkage of a phosphate group to the substance creatine. Creatine phosphate cannot be used directly to power muscle contraction, but it can transfer its phosphate group to ADP to form ATP:

Creatine phosphate + ADP + H+ ---> Creatine + ATP

Front 115

Anaerobic cellular respiration

Back 115

A series of ATP-producing reactions that do not require oxygen.

Front 116

Aerobic cellular respiration

Back 116

Muscle activity that lasts longer than half a minute depends increasingly on aerobic cellular respiration.

Front 117

Muscle fatigue

Back 117

The inability of a muscle to contract forcefully after prolonged activity.

Front 118

Oxygen debt

Back 118

Added oxygen, over and above the resting oxygen consumption that is taken into the body after exercise.

Front 119

Motor unit

Back 119

a single α-motor neuron and all of the corresponding muscle fibers it innervates; all of these fibres will be of the same type (either fast twitch or slow twitch).

Front 120

Latent period

Back 120

Delay that lasts about 2 miliseconds.

Front 121

Contraction period

Back 121

Lasts about 10 - 100 msec.

Front 122

Relaxation period

Back 122

Also lasts 10 - 100 msec, the active trasport of Ca2+ back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum cases relaxation.

Front 123

Refractory period

Back 123

The period of lost excitability.
Characteristic of all muscle and nerve cells.

Front 124

Wave summation

Back 124

Stimul arriving at different times cause larger contractions.

Front 125

Unfused tetanuse

Back 125

"tetan = rigid, tense"
Sustained, but wavering contractions.

Front 126

Fused tetanus

Back 126

Sustained contraction in which individual twitches cannot be discerned.

Front 127

Motor unit recruitment

Back 127

The process in which the number of active motor units increases.
Responsible for smooth movements, rather than a series of jerks.

Front 128

Muscle tone

Back 128

"tonos = tension"
Small amount of tautness or tension in muscle due to weak, involuntary contractions of motor units.

e.g Keep the head upright, and prevent it from slumping forward.

Front 129

Eccentric isotonic contraction

Back 129

The tension exerted by the myosin crossbridges resists movement of a load and slows the lengthening process.

Front 130

Slow oxidative (SO) fibers - Type I

Back 130

smallest in diameter
Least powerful
Appear dark red
Contain large amounts of myoglobin
e.g. postural muscles in neck - maintaining posture

Front 131

Fast oxidative-glycolytic fibers (FOG) - Type II A

Back 131

Intermediate in diameter
Contain large amount of myoglobin
Many blood capillaries
Appear dark red
e.g leg -walking, sprinting

Front 132

Fast Glycolytic Fibers (FG) - Type II B

Back 132

Largest in diameter and contain most myofibrils.
Have low myoglobin content
Few capillaries and mitochondria
Appear white in color
Quick to fatigue
e.g. Arm muscles - rapid, itense movements of short duration

Front 133

Cardiace muscle tissue is found where?

Back 133

Heart wall

Front 134

A unique feature of cardiac muscle fibers

Back 134

"intercal = to insert between"
Intercalated discs

Front 135

Smooth muscle tissue

Back 135

Usually activated involuntarily

Front 136

Visceral (single-unit) smooth muscle tissue

Back 136

More common
Found in wraparound sheets that form part of the walls of small arteries.

Front 137

Autonomic motor neuron

Back 137

synapses with several visceral smooth muscle fibers and action potentials spread t neighboring fibers thru gap junctions.

Front 138

Caveolae

Back 138

A small pit, depression, or invagination of the cell membrane - a special form of lipid raft.

Front 139

Dense bodies

Back 139

Similar to z discs in striated muscle fibers.

Front 140

Calmodulin

Back 140

Regulatory protein in smooth muscle cells.

Front 141

Smooth muscle tone

Back 141

Prolonged presence of Ca2+ in the cytosol provides a state of continued partial contraction.

Front 142

Hypotonia

Back 142

A disorder that causes low muscle tone (the amount of tension or resistance to movement in a muscle)

Front 143

Hypertonia

Back 143

an upper motor neuron dysfunction marked by an abnormal increase in tightness of muscle tone and a reduced ability of a muscle to stretch (i.e. an increased stiffness). Hypertonia is usually a feature of spasticity in particular muscles. These features are common in cerebral palsy.

Front 144

Hyperplasia

Back 144

abnormal increase in number of cells

Front 145

Smooth muscle develops from

Back 145

mesodermal cells that migrate to and envelope the developing gastrointestinal tract and viscra.

Front 146

Myasthenia gravis

Back 146

Immune system inappropriately produces antibodies that bind to and block some ACh receptors.

Decreased # of functional ACh receptors.

More common in women.

Front 147

Muscular dystrophy (duchenne muscular dystrophy)

Back 147

Genetic disorder muscle destroying disease.
Only strikes boys (noticed ages 2-5)
Difficulty jumping, running

Front 148

Fibromyalia

Back 148

"algia = painful condition"
Tender points
Nonarticular rheumatic disorder.
Severe fatigue, poor sleep, headaches, depression

Front 149

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis - ALS

Back 149

"myo = muscle; trophic = nourishment"
a terminal neurological disorder characterized by progressive degeneration of motor cells in the spinal cord and brain. It is often referred to as "Lou Gehrig's disease."