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187 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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ranges from samllest bacteria measuring around 200 nm, to protozoa and algae that measure 3 to 4 mm and are visible with the nake eye---viruses measure between 20nm and 800 nm
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How big are microbes?
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-Immunology
-Public Health Micro &Epidemiology -Food, dairy, and aquatic micro -Agricultural micro -Biotechnology -Genetic Engineering & Recombinant DNA |
What is the scope of microbiology?
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It includes the study of immune responses to infection by microorganisms. It is also concerned with the study of autoimmunity and hypersensitivity(allergy).
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What does the scope of Immunology concern?
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Aims to monitor and control the spread of diseases in communities.
CDC-Center for Disease Control WHO-World Health Organization |
What does the scope of Public Health Microbiology & Epidemiology concern?
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Examines the ecological and practical roles of microbes in food and water.
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What does the scope of Food, dairy, and aquatic microbiology concern?
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It is concerned with the relationships between microbes and crops, with an emphasis on improving yields and combating plant diseases.
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What does the scope of Agricultural microbiology concern?
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It involves any processes in which humans use the metabolism of living things to arrive at a desired product, ranging from bread making to gene therapy.
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What does the scope of Biotechnology concern?
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Involves techniques that deliberately alter the genetic makeup of organisms to mass-produce human hormones and pharmaceuticals...ect...
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What does the scope of GeneticEngineering & Recombinant DNA concern?
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It means that they are all over, they are constantly encountered.
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What does it mean by "Microorganisms are ubiquitous"?
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The belief that certain living things arose from vital forces present in nonliving or decomposing matter.
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What is the Theory of spontaneous generation?
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A system for organizing, classifying, & naming living things.
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What is taxonomy?
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Large, molecular compounds assembled from smaller subunits, most notably biochemicals
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What are macromolecules?
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Because biochemicals are organic compounds produced by living things and include four main families: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
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Why are macromolecules important in biology?
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In chemistry, a particular molecular combination that reacts in predictable ways and confers particular properties on a compound (Ex. -OH is an alcohol group)
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What is a functional group?
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glycosidic bonds-in which carbons on adjacent sugar units are bonded to the same oxygen atom like links in a chain (this is a dehydration reaction)
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How are carbohydrates macromolecules fromed?
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Through peptide bonds wherein a covalent bond forms between the amino group on one amino acid and the carboxyl group on another amino acid
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How are protein macromolecules formed?
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the type, number, and order of amino acids in the chain
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Primary structure of proteins are what?
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this is when various functional groups exposed on the outer surface of the molecule interact by forming hydrogen bonds and this interaction causes the amino acid chain to twist or fold
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What is the secondary structure of proteins?
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This is created by additional bonds between functional groups after the initial interactions of the secondary structure
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What is the tertiary structure of proteins?
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This is when more than one polypeptide froms a large, multiunit protein
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What is the quaternary structure of proteins?
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Through the covalent bonding between the phosphate and sugar molecules with the nitrogen bases branching off this backbone
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How are nucleic acid macromolecules formed?
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Lipids
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Which macromolecules are not formed by polymerization (a process in which subunit are joined in chains of various lengths)?
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triglycerides-made up of a glycerol unit bound to three fatty acids
phospholipids-a glycerol with two fatty acids and a phosphate group(which is bonded to an alcohol) cholesterol-steriods |
What are the basic molecular components of lipids?
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carbons forming chains or rings with two or more hydroxyl groups and either an aldehyde or ketone group
---these share oxygen and bond in glycosidic bonds to one another |
What are the basic molecular components of carbohydrates?
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nucleotides-which consist of a phosphate, a sugar, and a nitrogenous base and form bonds with others through a phosphate/sugar linkage
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What are the basic molecular components of nucleic acids?
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fatty acids, glycerol, and phosphate
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What are the basic molecular components of phospholipids?
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3- to 7- carbon sugars
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What are the basic molecular components of saccharides?
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A combination of two or more elements.
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What is a molecule?
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A combination of two or more different elements.
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What is a compound?
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It is a very common solvent because of polarity.
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Why is water important?
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The asymmetrical distribution of charges. (A molecule that is polar has positive and negative poles).
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What is polarity?
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The majority of biological compounds are composed of single or double covalent bonds.
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How do covalent bonds function in biological molecules?
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influences reactivity and structure
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How does polarity function in biological molecules?
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A weak type of bond that forms between a hydrogen covalently bonded to one molecule and an oxygen or nitrogen atom on the same molecule or on a different molecule.
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What are hydrogen bonds?
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it is partly responsible for the structure and stability of proteins and nucleic acids
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How do hydrogen bonds function in biological molecules?
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the pH of an environment (exterior or interior of a cell) is important for living systems and has a far-reaching effect on living things
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Why is pH important in biology?
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having an excess of H+ ions in solution (pH below 7 on the pH scale)
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What does it mean to be an acid or acidic?
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having an excess of OH- ions in solution (pH above 7 on the pH scale)
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What does it meant to be a base or basic?
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A compound containing primarily carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio. (Sugars)
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What are carbohydrates?
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-ose
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How do sugar names end?
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glycosidic bonds (share Oxygen)
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What type of bond forms polysaccharides?
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substances that are not soluble in polar solvents such as water but will dissolve in nonpolar solvents. They include triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes
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What are lipids?
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They are important in energy storage and membrane structure
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How are lipids important in biology?
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triglycerides
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What are the type of lipids that are important in energy storage?
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long-chain hydrocarbon molecules with a carboxyl group at one end
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What are fatty acids?
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predominant organic molecule in cells, formed by long chains of amino acids
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What are proteins?
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to a large extend, the structure, behavior, and qualities of each living thing are a consequence of the proteins they contain
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How are proteins important in biology?
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enzymes, antibodies, ribosomes, part of the cell membrane
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What are some examples of proteins?
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DNA and RNA
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What are nucleic acids?
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they are the master computer of the cells, containing specific instructions for each organism's heredity (DNA) and carrying out those instructions (RNA)
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How are nucleic acids important in biology?
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nucleotides
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What are nucleic acids polymers of?
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a nitrogen base, a pentose (sugar), and a phosphate
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What is the basic structure of a nucleotide?
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the are the two forms that the nitrogen base comes in
-purines (AG) have two rings -pyrimidines (CUT) have one ring |
What are purines and pyrimidines?
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The nitrogen bases are covalently bonded to the sugar (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA) and the sugar is bonded to the phosphate (the sugar/phosphate bond creates the backbone of the nucleic acid)
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How do the purines and pyrimidines function?
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ester bonds
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What type of bonds to lipids form?
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phospho diester bonds
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What type of bonds do nucleic acids form?
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1.Growth
2. Reproduction & heredity 3. Metabolism 4. Motility/irritability 5. Cell support, Protection and Storage 6. Nutrient transport |
What are the processes that define life?
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Innoculation
Incubation Isolation Inspection Identification |
What are the Five Basic Techniques-Five I's?
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Where we introduce a small amount of culture (inoculum) into a medium.
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What is inoculation?
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to grow a pure culture of a single microbial species
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What is the goal of inoculation?
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growing the culture at the appropriate temperature in a temperature-controlled chamber
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What is incubation?
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multiplication of cells
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What is the goal of incubation?
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three basic methods of seperating (or isolating) one species from another
-streak plates -pour plate -spread plate |
What is isolation?
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to get a pure culture or single type of bacterium isolated from a mixed culture
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What is the goal of isolation?
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when macroscopic growth patterns are observed; microscopic detals are observed through staining techniques
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What is inspection?
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to determine purity, and determine cell shape, size, motility, and other features
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What is the goal of inspection?
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When you determine the type of microbe, usually the species level
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What is identification?
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making a second-generation culture from a well-established colony of organisms
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What is subculturing?
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a small droplet of culture or sample is spread over the surface of the medium with a loop in a pattern that thins out the sample
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What happens in the streak plate method of inoculation?
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the sample is inoculated serially into a series of coold but still liuid agar tubes so as to dilute the number of cells in each successive tube in the series and are then plated out
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What happens in the loop dilution method of inoculation?
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a small volume of liquid, diluted sample is pipetted onto the surface of the medium and spread around evenly by a sterile spreading tool (hockey stick)
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What happens in the spread plate method of inoculation?
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-physical state
-chemical composition -functional type |
In what ways can media be classified?
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the medium's normal consistency (liquid, gas, solid that can be liquefied, and solid that cannot be liquefied)
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What does it mean to classify media by it's physical state?
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classifying it by the type of chemicals the medium contains
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What does it mean to classify media by it's chemical composition?
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a chemically defined medium
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What is a synthetic medium in chemical composition classification?
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not chemically defined (like broth)
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What is a nonsynthetic medium in chemical composition classification?
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what the purpose of the medium is and this includes
general purpose enriched selective differentialanaerobic growth specimen transport assay enumeration |
What does it mean to classify media by it's functional type?
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general-purpose media
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What are media designed to grow as broad a spectrum of microbes as possible?
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enriched medium
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What medium contains complex organic substances or special growth factors that certain species must have in order to grow?
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selective medium
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What medium contains one or more agents that inhibit the growth of a certain microbe or microbes but not others?
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differential media
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What media allow multiple types of microorganisms to grow but are designed to display visible differences amoung those microorganisms?
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biochemical test media
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What media containt things like pH indicators and gas production indicators?
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It is the capacity of an optical system to distinguish or seperate two adjacent objects or points from one another?
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What is Resolution=Resolving power?
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objective lens
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What are the lenses on the compound microscope that are closest to the specimen?
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ocular lens times objective lens
10X * 40X |
How do you calculate total magnification?
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Bright-field microscope
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What is the most commonly used microscope in laboratories and it is used to observe live or preserved, stained specimens?
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Dark-field microscope
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What is the type of microscope used to observe live, unstained specimens where you can view an outline of the specimens?
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Phase-contrast
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What is the type of microscope that uses interference microscopy and allows you to observe live specimens, view internal cellular detail, and view locomotor structures(cilia)?
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Differential interference
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What type of microscope provides brightly colored, highly contrasting, three-dimensional images of live specimens?
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Fluorescence
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What type of microscopy uses fluorescent stains or dyes and the UV radiation causes emission of visible light from dye?
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Confocal
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What type of microscopy uses a laser to scan a specimen and fluorescence or unstained specimen images are combined to form a three-dimensional image?
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Electron microscopy
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What type of microscopy has very high magnification of up to 650,000X?
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Transmission electron microscope
-allows you to view internal structures of cells |
What is a TEM?
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Scanning electron microscope
-provides three-dimensional images |
What is a SEM?
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Positive stains are basic and bind to the specimen while negative stains are acidic and bind to the background.
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What is the difference between positive and negative staines?
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simple
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What type of positive stain contains only one die and stains all cells the same?
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differential
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What type of positive stain contains two-different colored dyes and stains cells differently?
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special
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What type of stains emphasize certain cell parts?
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working from outside in
-appendages -Glycocalyx -Cell envelope (outer membrane Cell Wall, Cell membrane -cytoplasm -ribosomes -inclusions -nucleoid/chromosome -actin cytoskeleton -endospore |
How are prokaryotes organized cellularly?
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cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, nucleoid/chromosome
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What do all prokaryotic cells have?
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glycocalyx, cell wall
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What do only some (the majority) prokaryotic cells have?
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appendages, inclusions, actin cytoskeleton, endospores
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What do only some (not the majority) prokaryotic cells have?
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país
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country
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because of the functions of the flagella, fimbriae, and pilus
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Why are appendages important?
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Flagella: enables bacteria to be motile
Pilus: enable conjugation to occur, which is the transfer of DNA (baterial sex) Fimbriae: enables adhesion/attachment to surfaces (like biofilms) |
What are the function of appendages?
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the filament is inserted into a tubular hook that is anchored to the cell by the basal body
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How is the flagella structured?
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in small, bristlelike fibers sprouting off the surface of many bacterial cells---most contain protein
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How are fimbriae structured?
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in an enlongate, rigid, tubular way made of a protein called pilin
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How are pilus structured?
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a coating of repeating polysaccharide units, protein, or both that functions to protect the cell and sometimes adhere it to its environment
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What is the Glycocalyx?
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the capsule is more tightly bound to the cell than the slime layer and it is denser and thicker
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Glycocalyx capsules vs. slime layers.
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the cell wall, the cell membrane, and in some bacteria, the outer membrane
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What are the three basic layers of the cell envelope?
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the boundary layer of the bacteria---the external covering
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What is the cell envelope?
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it helps determine the shape of the bacteria and provides structural support
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What does the cell wall of the cell envelope do?
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regulates transport, energy generation, nutrient synthesis
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What does the cell/cytoplasmic membrane of the cell envelope do?
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serves as a partial chemical seive
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What does the outer membrane of the cell envelope do?
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physical differences in cell envelopes
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What does gram staining tell?
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-a thick peptidoglycan (PG) layer
-the cell membrane has proteins embedded in the phospholipid bilayer -it stains purple |
What are characteristics of gram-positive cells?
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-outer membrane is very thin
with lipid polysaccharide and porin proteins -thin PG layer (cell wall) -Periplasmic space is well developed -Cell membrane has proteins -they stain red |
What are the characteristics of gram-negative cells?
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Holes are punched into the cell walls and the crystal violet doesn't leach out of the cells that are Gram(+) because of the thickness of their thick peptidoglycan layer
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What happens with the Gram staining to the cells?
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polysaccharide chains cross-linked by short peptides-this forms the rigid part of bacterial cell walls
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What is the peptidoglycan cell wall?
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for cell wall stability and shape
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What is peptidoglycan important?
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lipid bilayer that encloses the cytoplasm of bacterial cell
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What is the cytoplasmic membrane?
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Gram positive have developed resistance (thicker cell wall)
Gram negative are impervious to antimicrobial agents |
Explain pathogenicity differences in Gram(+) and Gram(-).
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an internal gelatinous solution containing water, nutrients, proteins, genetic material and is the site for cell metabolism
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What is cytoplasm?
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the nucleic acid often referred to as the "double helix." DNA carries the master plan for an organism's heredity.
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What is DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)?
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the nucleic acid responsible for carrying out the herditary program transmitted by an organism's DNA
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What is RNA (ribonucleic acid)?
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DNA is circular
RNA is small spherical specks |
How are DNA and RNA shaped in bacteria?
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tiny pieces of extra circular DNA molecules that pass on thing like antibiotic resistence
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What are plasmids?
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a combination of RNA and protein, and is involved in protein synthesis
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What are ribosomes?
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store nutrients, allow cells to survive nutrient depleted environments; they are granules or gas vesicles
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What is the function of storage bodies - inclusion?
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long filaments of protein arranged like ribbons under the cell membrane of some bacteria; contribute to cell shape
it is a protein fiber=cytoskeleton |
What is actin and what is its function?
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rods and spiral bacteria
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Where is actin found?
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asexual product
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Is an endospore an asexual or sexual product?
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the bacteria Bacillus, Clostridium, and Sprorsarcina
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What types of species produce endospores?
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single, in pairs, in tetrads, in irregular clusters, or in chains
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How are bacterial cells arranged?
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varied shapes
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What does pleomorphism mean in bacteria?
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a capsule
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What is an example of a glycocalyx?
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peptidoglycan
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What is present in both gram-positive and gram-negative cell walls?
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external and internal structures of eukaryotes are more complex than prokaryotes
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How do eukaryotes compare to prokaryotes?
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-yeast
-protozoa -algae -helminths -animal cells |
What are some examples of eukaryotes?
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-it moves in a whiplike motion (whereas prokaryotic ones move by 360 degree rotation)
-it is arranged in a 9+2 pattern |
How do eukaryotic flagella differ from prokaryotic ones?
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nine pairs of closely attached microtubules surrounding a single central pair (is a pattern of flagella and cilia)
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What is the "9+2" arrangement?
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they are present in Paramecium and are similar to flagella but are shorter and more numerous
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What are cilia?
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an outermost boundary that comes into direct contact with the environment
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What is the glycocalyx in a eukaryotic cell?
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contributes to the protection, adherence of cells to surfaces, and reception of signals from other cells and from the environment
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What is the function of the glycocalyx in the eukaryote?
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--mixed glycans-thick outermost layer
--glycoprotein-thin middle layer --chitin or cellulose-thick inner layer |
What is the cell wall in eukaryotes made up of?
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fungi and algae
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What type of eukaryotes have cell walls?
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rigid structure and support
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What is the function of cell walls in eukaryotes?
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fungi has chitin and algae have cellulose
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Which of the eukaryotes contain chitin in their cell walls and which contain cellulose?
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they are what confers stability on eukaryotic membranes-this is important in cells that lack a cell wall
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Sterols are contained in the cell membrane of eukaryotes. What are they?
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-prokaryotes rotate and are composed of a protein filament
-eukaryotes move in a whiplike fashion and are composed of a 9+2 configuration of microtubules |
Explain two ways that flagella are different in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
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-produced during harsh environmental conditions by some species
-produced by some Gram(+) species -produced by some Bacillus and Clostridium species |
Endospores are:
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flagella, glycocalyx, cell wall, cell membrane
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What is the correct order of external structures, from outside of the cell to inside the prokaryotic cell?
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-nucleus
-endoplasmic reticulum -golgi apparatus -mitochodria -chloroplast (photosynthetic cells only) -ribosomes -cytockeleton |
What are the internal structures of the eukaryote?
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by a nuclear envelope
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How is the nucleus kept seperate from the cytoplasm in eukaryotes?
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two parallel membranes separated by a narrow space and perforated with small openings which are passageways
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Describe the structure of the nuclear envelope.
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--nucleolus-site of rRNA synthesis
--chromatin-chromosomal DNA --histones-proteins associated with DNA |
What is present in the nucleus?
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linear in Eukaryotes and circular in Prokaryotes
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How is DNA shaped?
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-a series of tunnels used in transport and storage
-two kinds rough endoplasmic reticulum and the smoothe endoplasmic reticulum -the nuclear envelope forms the membrane for the ER |
What is the endoplasmic reticulum?
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-rough ER has ribosomes and
smooth ER has no ribosomes |
What are the differences between rough ER and smooth ER?
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-coated with ribosomes
-site of protein synthesis -transports proteins from the nucleus to the sytoplasm and cell membrane -functions with transitional vesicles |
All about the rough endoplasmic reticulum???
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-outer surface lacks ribosomes
-consists of a closed tubular network -functions in the synthesis of lipids, carbohydrate metabolism, and detoxification |
All about the smooth endoplasmic reticulum???
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the site in the cell in which proteins are modified and then sent to their final destinations
-site for protein modification -spits out condensing vesicles |
What is the Golgi Apparatus?
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stacked cisternae with a noncontinuous membrane network
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What is the structure of the Golgi Apparatus?
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-the powerhouse of the cell-the energy generator
-produces ATP |
What is the mitochondria?
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-double membrane
-outer smooth -inner folded (cristae) -Matrix is the fluid area around the cristae that contains ribosomes, DNA(circular), and enzymes |
How are the mitochondria structured?
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organelles found in algae and plant cells that are capable of converting the energy of sunlight into chemical energy through photosynthesis
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What are chloroplasts?
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smooth, outer membrane completely covers an inner membrane(so double membraned) that is folded into thylakoids(disclike sacs)that are stacked upon one another into grana
-these structures carry chlorophyll and are surrounded by the stroma -the stroma contains DNA and ribosomes |
What is the structure of choloroplast?
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The Endosymbiosis Theory
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Why do mitochondria and chloroplasts have DNA?
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yes, the eukaryotic ribosome is generally larger than the prokaryotic one
80S vs. 70S |
Are ribosomes in eukaryotes different from those in prokaryotes?
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a criss-crossed flexible framework of molecules
-two types are microfilaments and microtubules |
What is the cytoskeleton?
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-anchor organelles
-cellular structural support -enable cell shape changes -movement in some cells |
What is the function of the cytoskeleton?
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thin protein strans that attach tot he cell membrane and form a network through the cytoplasm
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What are microfilaments?
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lon, hollow tubes that maintain the shape of eukaryotic cells withouth walls and transport substances from one part of a cell to another
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What are microtubules?
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medically-(ex.athelete's foot)
industriall-(ex. fermentation) |
How are fungi important?
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means that they eat other organisms or obtain nutrients from other organisms
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What does it mean to say that fungi are heterotrophic?
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hyphae-that are long threadlike cells
yeasts-round to oval shaped cells that divide by budding and can form pseudohyphae |
What are the two morphologies of fungi?
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-chytridiomycota: not currently infecting humans
-zygomycota: some infecting humans -ascomycota: true yeasts -basidiomycota: most of the mushrooms we eat |
What are the four major groups of fungi?
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-asexual (by mitosis)
-sexual (by meiosis) spore formation which is the most common |
What type of reproduction do fungi have?
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Sexual
-zygospores -basidiospores -ascospores Asexual -sporangiospores -conidia |
What types of spores do fungi produce?
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may cause superficial and systemic infections, allergies, neurological disturbances/death
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What are the types of human fungal infections?
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economic hindrance because of plant pathogens and rot
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What other ways are fungi of importance?
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-penicillin
-mycorrhizae: nutrient uptake in plants -foods -industrial uses -decomposition of dead materials |
How are fungi beneficial?
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a group of photosynthetic organisms usually recognized by their larger members such as seaweeds and kelps
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What are algae?
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some do
-Prototheca causes skin and sucutaneous infections -red tide |
Do algae cause infections?
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charged proteins on the tertiary level
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How do ionic bonds function in biological molecules?
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AT and GC
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Which bases bind together?
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