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249 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
how do all sensory receptors work?
1. stimulate neurons
2. information is sent to brain
3. cerebral cortex integrates the information
4. forms a perception
what is a sensation?
awarness of the stimulus
what is perceptrion?
interpretation of the meaning of the stimulus
receptors that respond to tissue damage
nociceptors
receptors that respond to changes in temperature
thermorecptors
respond to mechanical forces, such as pressure or fluid movement
mechanoreceptors
what changes usually deform the receptor?
mechanoreceptors
receptors that senses changes in muscles and tendons
proprioceptors
receptors that detect changes in pressure in blood vessels
barorecptors
receptor that senses the degree of inflation in lungs
stretch receptors
receptors that responds to light
photoreceptors
what is the minimum response that a photoreceptor needs?
one photon
receptor that is sensitive to chemical concentration of various substances
chemoreceptors
receptors that responds to concentrations of chemicals
osmoreceptors
what is exteroceptive senses?
changes at body surface
what is proprioceptive senses?
changes in muscles and tensons and body position
what is interoceptive senses?
changes in viscera (internal organs)
what are the ways that a simple receptor is structured?
receptors can be free nerve endings or other kinds of cells which are associated with nerve endings
what is the largest sense organ of the body?
exteroceptive
what is meant by a threshold?
the level of intensity that a stimulus can be detected
do receptors respond to only one stimulus?
no, they have a appropriate stimulus called the adequate which will react to a lower threshold. (quicker reaction)
how are sensory stimuli translated into electrical impluses?
1. the stimulus is applied at the tip of the receptor and the deflection is held constant
2. this deformation causes a portion of its cell membrane to become more permeable to (+) ions.
3. the increased permeability of the membrane leads to a localized depolarization.
what is a generator potential?
the localized depolarization of a membrane because of increased permeability
what is meant by a receptor potential?
a graded potential that occurs at a sensory receptor membrane
what is transduction?
1. stimulus energy is matched with the specificity of the receptor
2. stimulus is applied within a sensory receptor's receptive field (particular area monitored by the receptor)
3. stimulus energy is converted into the energy of a graded potential called a receptor potential.
what is sensory adaptation?
a change in the sensitivity in the presence of a constant stimulus
fast adapting, often giving bursts of impluses at the beginning and at the end of the stimulus
phasic receptors
what receptors act mainly to report changes in the internal or external environment?
phasic receptors
receptors that provide a susbstained response with little or no adaptation
tonic receptors
where are the three neurons associated with the ascending sensory pathway located?
first-order: receptor to dorsal gray horn
second-order: to thalamus or medulla
third-order: to cerebral cortex
how is information processed at the perceptual level? (7)
1. stumulus had occured (perceptual detection)
2. magnitude estimation
3. spatial discrimination (site of stimulation)
4. feature abstraction (circuit tuned to one feature)
5. quality discrimination
6. pattern recognition
7. projection (where the stimulus is perceived)
what are three sense organs that help us feel touch and pressure?
1. free nerve endings (touch/pressure)
2. meissner's corpuscles (light touch)
3. pacinian corpuscles (heavy pressure and vibrations)
what are meissner's and Pacinian corpuscles; receptor cells?
connective tissue
how doe we sense different temperatures?
free nerve endings in the skin
what are the receptors for pain?
free nerve endings
what stimuli can cause pain?
mechanical damage, extreme temperatures, or chemicals, deficiency of blood flow and oxygen
what is substance P?
neurotransmitter that is released by fibers when in pain
do pain receptors adapt?
little if at all
what is the difference between pain threshold and pain tolerance?
pain threshold is the perceive pain at the same stimulus intensity but differ in pain tolerance
what can change a person's pain tolerance?
varies with age, chronic pain, cultural and psychological factors
what sensations do we get from our viscera?
pain
pain that feels as though it comes from elsewhere due to a common nerve pathway
referred pain
pain that comes from a limb that has been amputated
phantom pain
what are the two types of pain fibers?
acute pain fibers (A or delta fibers)
Chronic pain fibers (C fibers)
pain fibers tht are thin and myelinated fibers

pain fibers that are thin and unmyelinated fibers
acute pain fibers; chronic
pain fibers that conducts up to 30 meters/sec

pain fibers that conducts up to 2 meters/sec
acute pain fibers; chronic
pain fibers that are dull, aching and widespread pain

fibers that are sharp and localized
chronic; acute
pain fibers that seldom continues after stimulus stops

fibers that continue for some time after stimulus
actue; chronic
how does ascending fibers modulate pain?
activate larger-diameter touch fibers that interfere with pain transmission in the spinal cord.
how does descending fiber also modulate pain?
have receptors for enkephalins and endorphins and release norepinephrine or serotonin with suppress pain or activate enkephalin releasing neurons

enkephalins act presynaptically to decrease release of substance P and postsynaptically to inhibit action potential generation
how does aspirin function in pain relief?
all nociceptors can be sensitized by prostaglandins. aspirin and similar drugs inhibit the synthesis of prostaglandins
sense stretching of muscle, and cause contraction of the muscle to maintain position
muscle spindles
sense stretching of tendons and cause that muscle to relax to prevent damage to the tendon
golgi tendon organs
what do muscle spindles sense and what reflexes do they cause?
detect muslce stretch and initiate a relfex that resists the stretch
what do golgi tendon organs sense and what reflexes do they cause?
detect tendon fibers are stretched by muscle contraction
reflex is for golgi tendon organs are activated, the contracting muscle is inhibited, which causes it to relax
what type of receptor functions in the sense of taste and smell?
chemoreceptors
what type of receptor functions in the sense of hearing and equilibrium?
mechanoreceptors
what type of receptor functions in the sense of vision?
photoreceptors
what type of cells for the receptors for the sense of smell?
epithelium
where are the receptors located that are involved in the sense of smell?
roof of the nasal cavity, covering the superior nasal concha on each side of the nasal septum
describe the olfactory mucosa.
contains sensory fibers form the trigeminal nerve which plays a role in initiation of relexes
what role does mucus play in the sense of smell?
chemicals must be dissolved in mucus to stimulate the receptor
how do we recognixe thousands of different ordors?
combinations of primary scents allow us to do this
are olfactory receptors replaced during a person's lifetime?
yes but lost at the rate of about 1% per year
how long do olfactory receptors live?
30-60 days
what happens to our sense of smell as we get older?
we slowly lose it because of the lost receptors of 1% each year
what bony structure do the olfactory fibers pass through on their way to the oldfactory bulb?
cribriform plate
how quickly does sense of smell adapt?
adapts rapidly; partial adaptation in 3-5 secs and complete in 1-5 minutes
what is the threshold for the sense of smell?
has low threshold especially to certain ordors
what are the five primary taste sensations?
salty, sour, sweet, bitter, and umami
which of the five primary taste sensations has the lowest threshold?
bitter
if we can only detect five tastes, why do foods taste so different from each other?
substance produce a misxture of the bast taste sensations
where are the receptors for tast located?
in taste buds which are located primarily in the oral cavity (tongue, soft palate, lining of cheeks, pharynx and larynx)
of the four types of tissues, which type of cells form the receptors for the sense of taste?
epithelial cells
what type of cells does a taste bud have?
receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells
are the gustatory receptors primary or secondary receptors?
secondary
how does each of the five taste cause depolarization?
salty- depolarizes directly
sour- blocking potassium channels with hydrogen ions
bitter, sweet, and umami- use G-protein-coupled receptors. the resulting decrease in potassium conductance leasds to depolarization
what cranial nerves transmit our sense of taste?
facial (VII), glossopharyngeal (IX), and vagus (X) nerves
what are the three main divisions of the ear?
inner, middle, and outer ear
what structures make up the outer ear?
auditory canal and auricle
what glands do we find in the outer ear?
ceruminous glands
what is the primary function of the outer ear?
to collect sounds waves, amplifies sounds, and aids in location of sounds
what is the structure of the thmpanic membranes?
eardrum
what structures makes up the middle ear?
tympanic membrane, oval window, round window, epitympanic recess, mastoid antrum, auditory tube, auditory ossicles (malleus, stapes, incus) tensor tympani, and stapedius.
what is the function of the middle ear?
it allows for equalization to occur.
what is the three ossicles in order?
MIS, Malleus, incus, stapes
what do we call an infection of the middle ear?
otitis media
what are the muscles found in the middle ear and what is their function?
tensor tympani: tenses the eardrum by pulling it medially,
stapedius: checks vibration of the whole ossicle chain and limits the movement of the stapes in the oval window.
a system of tortuous channels worming through the bone.
bony labyrinth
a continuous series of membranous sacs and ducts contained within the bony labyrinth and following its contours
membranous labyrinth
what are the three main dividions of labyrinths?
vestiblue, cochlea, semicircular canals
which division of the labyrinths is involved in hearing?
cochlea
which division of the labyrinths is involved in static equilibrium?
vestibule
which division of the labyrinths in involved in dynamic equilibrium?
semicircular canals
describe the cochlear.
sprial, conical bony chamber.
where do we find perilymph?
in osseous labyrinth
where do we find endolymph?
in membranous labyrinth
trace the path of sound waves from the outer ear to the cochlear branch of the cranial nerve VIII.
1. sound waves vibrate the typanic membrane
2. auditory ossicles virbate. pressure is amplified
3. pressure waves created by the stapes pushing on the oval window move through fluid in the scala
4. sounds with frquencies below hearing travel through the helicontrema and do not excite hair cells.
5. sounds in the hearing range go through the cochlear duct, vibrating the basilar membrane and deflecting hairs on inner hair cells.
how does transduction take place in the organ of Corti?
occurs after the trapped stereocilia of the hair cells are tweaked or deflected by localized movements of the basilar membrane
why does which way the hair cells are bent make a difference?
bc if they bend toward the stria vascularis, forces open the transduction channels and cation ienter the cell resulting in depolarization.

if the hair is bent toward the modiolus of the cochlea results in hyperpolarization
why does some gibers from each ear cross over to the opposite cerebral hemisphere?
bc it helps localize the sound
what is the function of the round window?
It allows fluid in the cochlea to move, which in turn ensures that hair cells of the basilar membrane will be stimulated and that audition will occur.
how do we hear high sounds differently from low sounds?
the hair cells are in different positions along the length of the basilar membrane and are activated by sound waves of different frequencies.
how do we her soft sounds from loud sounds?
louder sounds cause larger movements of the tympanic membrane, auitory ossicles, and oval window, and pressure waves of greater amplitude in the fluids of the cochlea
what is the range of human being?
20 Hz to 20,000 Hz
how do the otoliths help maintain static equilibium?
otoliths increae the membrane's weight and its resistance to change in motion
where are the otoliths located?
in the otolithic membrane above the hair cells
how do the maculae of the utricle and saccule function?
they monitor the position of the head in space by responding to linear acceleration forces.
what part of the inner ear helps sense dynamic equilibrium?
semicircular canals
hows does the crista ampullaris function?
the cristae respond to changes in the velocity of rotatory movements of the head.
the endolymph in the semicircular ducts moves briefly in the direction opposite the body's rotation, deforming the crista.
hairs are bent in opposite direction, depolarizion of the receptors in one ampulla and hairs are bent in the other direction hyperpolarizing the receptors in the other ampulla
what is the kinocilium?
at the tall end of the stereocilia array, the larger cilium.
what is nystagmus and why does it occur after we spin in a chair?
a complex of rather strange eye movements that occurs during and immediately after rotation.
eye continue to drift in the same direction of rotation imediately after and then jerk rapidly in opposite direction. this sudden change is caused by the change in the direction in which the cristae are bent after you stop.
what are the four layers of the eyelid?
skin, muscle, connective tissue, conjunctiva
what two muscle are found in the eyelid?
orbicularis oculi and levator palpebrae superioris
what are eyelashes and eyebrows for?
to keep out stuff
where is the lacrimal gland and what does it do?
lies in the orbit above the lateral end of the eye and is visible through the conjunctiva when the lid is everted.
it continually releases a dilute saline solution (tears) into the superior part of the conjuctival sac
where do tears go when they leave your eyes?
spreads downward and across the eyeball to the medial commissure where they enter into the lacrimal canaliculi then drain into the lacrimal sac and then into the nasolacrimal duct, then empties into the nasal cavity.
whould activation of the sympathetic or parasympathetic nervous system produce tears?
parasympathetic
what are the six extrinsic eye mucels and how does each one move the eyeball?
superior rectus - up
inferior rectus - down
medial rectus - in
later rectus - out
superior oblique - down, out medial rotation
inferior oblique - up, out, lateral rotation
what is the strabismus?
turned eye
what is phoria?
weakness of the eye muscles
what are the three ayers of the eyeball?
fibrous tunic, Vascular tunic, nervous tunic
what structures are in the fibrous tunci?
cornea and scleara
where do you fin blood vessels in the fibrous tunic?
sclera
why is the cornea clear?
it lets light enter the eye
what structures are in the vascular tunic?
chroid, ciliary body, iris
what are the two major functions of the ciliary body?
makes aqueous humor and accomodation
how do the muscles of the ciliary body and the lens work together to allow you to see close objects?
the lens thins when stretched by suspensory ligaments- vision far away
the lens thickens when suspensory ligaments is relaxed- vision close
how and where is aqueous humor produced?
secreted into the posterior chamber by the ciliary body
and is produce by filtration
Where does the aqueous humor drain?
It flows through the narrow cleft between the front of the lens and the back of the iris, to escape through the pupil into the anterior chamber, and then to drain out of the eye via the trabecular meshwork. From here, it drains into Schlemm's canal by one of two ways: directly, via aqueous vein to the episcleral vein, or indirectly, via collector channels to the episcleral vein by intrascleral plexus and eventually into the veins of the orbit.
what happens if too much aqueous humor is prduced or too little drains
produces intraocular pressure called glaucoma
why is the lens of the eye clear?
to allow light in
what are crystallins?
proteins in the lens
what is a cataract?
the crystallins become yellow then opaque.
what does the iris do?
divides anterior and prosterior chamber
what happens when the iris receives stimulation from the sympathetic nervous system?
dilation
what happens when the iris receives stimulation from the parasympathetic nervous system?
constriction
what is the pupil?
the round central opening of the iris
what is the structure of the retina?
choroid
pigmented epithelium
Rods and cones
bipolar cells
ganglion cells
where are the photoreceptors located in relationship to the incoming light?
in the fovea centalis
what are the two types of photoreceptors?
rods and cones
what is the fovea centralis and why is it important?
central pit where light is focused by the cornea and lens
it directs light to the photoreceptors
which reeptors allow you to see in dim light and to sense fast moving objects?
rods
which receptors allow you to see colors and to have good visual acuity?
cones
what about rods and cons relationship with the bipolar and ganglion cells allow for fine discrimination?
light passes through the retina to excite the photoreceptor cells. information then flows in the opposite direction via bipolar and ganglion cells.
what does 20/20 mean?
20(your vision in ft)/ 20 ("normal" persons vision in ft)
what do you find in the posterior cavity?
vitreous humor
why is examination of the interior of the eye important in a medical examination of a patient?
shows a direct view of the microcirculation
how does your eye focus if you have emmetropia?
good vision 20/20
how does your eye focus if you have myopia
focus is infront of the fovea centralis = nearsightedness
how does your eye focus if you have hyperopia?
behind the foves centralis = farsightedness
how does your eye focus if you have astigmatism?
light does not focus to a sigle point on the retina
how does your eye focus if you have presbyopia?
loss of ability to accommodate or see up close
what is a diopter?
the inverse of the focal length (1/FL) is used to describe the power of a lens
what are your photoreceptors doing in the dark?
1. Na channels are held open by a nucleotide called cyclic CMP
2. inflow of sodium triggers the continual release of neurotransmitter glutamate
3. glutamate is inhibitory which prevents bipolar cells from firing by hyperpolarizing them
what happens to the photoreceptors when light hits them?
1. light strikes the retina, which straightens out (no longer fits into the opsin)
2. the two separate (bleaching)
3. the opsin becomes an active enzyme, activates other enzymes that break down cyclic GMP
4. Na channels close
5. receptor hyperpolarizes, stopping release of glutamate
6. bipolar cells fire, causing action potentials in ganglion cells and information is sent to the visual cortex
trace the path of impulses from the photoreceptors to the occipital cortex.
1. the ganglion cells axons form the optic nerve.
2. the optic nerve enter the rear of the orbit and pass to the underside of the brain to the optic chiasma
3. in the optic chiasma, half of the fibers from each eye cross over to the other side.
4. fibers from the temporal side of the retina do not cross the midline, but travel in the optic tract on the same side of the brain.
5. fiber from the nasal side of the retina cross the optic chiasma and travel in the optic tract to the opposite side of the brain.
6. the divided output goes through the optic tract to the paired lateral geniculate bodies
7. then via the geniculocalcaraine tract to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe of the brain.
wht is the most common form of color blindness?
red-green color blindness
what chromosome carries red-green information?
X- chromosomes
secrete their prodcuts through ducts into body cavities or onto body surfaces
exocrine glands
secrete hormones into the interstitial fluid where it enters the blood.
endocrine glands
hormones that pass into the blood and act on distant cells
circulating hormones
restricted to the interstital fluid and affect only nearby cells
paracrine secretions
affect only the secreting cell itself
autocrine secretions
how are circulating hormones inactivated and/or removed from the body?
inactivated by the liver and excreted by the kidneys
what are the differences in the nervous system and endocrine system in terms of how or what is gives off, what it affects, time it takes to act, and effect time
nervous system:
nerve impulses
causes muscles to contract and glands to secrete
act in milliseconds
effects are brief

endocrine system:
hormones
affect virtually all body tissues
may take hours
effects long lasting
how does the nervous system and the endocrine system effect each other?
certain parts of the nervous system stimulate or inhibit the release of hormones
hormones may promote or inhibit the generation of nerve impulses
some neurotransmitters act as hormones
why do hormones affect only certain organs?
they affect specific target cell that have receptors which recognize that particular hormone
what hormones are steroids?
gonadal and adrenocortical hormones
what are steriod hormones made from?
cholesterol
how do steriod hormones change what is hoing on inside a cell?
they act on intracellular receptors, which directly activate genes
how do protein or peptide (water-soluble hormones) affect what goes on inside a cell?
they act on receptors in the plasma membrane. these receptors are coupled via regulatory molecules called G proteins to one or more intracellular second messengers which mediate the target cell's response
how is the effect amplifies within the cell?
each activated adenylate cyclase generates large numbers of cAMP molecules, and a single kinase enzyme can catalytze hundreds of reactions.
when target cells form more receptors in response to rising blood levels of the specific hormones
up-regulation
when prolonged exposure to high hormone concentrations desensitizes the target cells, so that they respond less vigorously to hormonal stimulation
down-regulation
what are prostaglandins, what are they made from and what do they do?
eicosanoids
lipids
affect wide varity of tissues, raise blood pressure, uterine contractions, blood clotting, pain and inflammation
what are leukotrines, what are they made from and what do they do?
eicosanoids
lipids
affect white blood cells, mediate inflammation and some allergic reactions
how are steroid hormones administered?
orally
how are peptide and protein hormones administered?
digested and must be given by another route other than orallly
what are the three ways hormones may be regulated?
1. by the anterior pituitar gland bc it releases tropic hormones that stimulate other endocrin glands to secrete their hormones
2. some glands respond directly to change in the internal environment
3. the nervous system stimulates some glands directly
what bony structure protects the pituitary gland?
sella turcica of the sphenoid bone
Hormone: Oxytocin
Produced By:
Target:
Effect:
Regulation:
Produced By: Posterior Pituitary Hormones
Target: Uterus
Effect: stimulates uterine contractions; initiates labor; initiates milk ejection
Regulation: stimulated by impluses from pyothalamic neurons in response to cervial/uterine stretching and suking of infant at breast
inhibited by lack of appropriate neural stimuli
Hormone:antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Produced By:
Target:
Effect:
Regulation:
Produced By: posterior pituitary hormone
Target: kidneys
Effect: stimulates kidney tubule cells to reabsorb water
Regulation: stimulated by impluses from hypothalamic neurons in response to increased osmolality of blood or decrease in blood volume; also stimulated by pain, some drugs, low blood pressure
inhibited by adequate hydreation of the body and by alcohol
Hormone: growth hormone (GH)
Produced By:
Target:
Effect:
Regulation:
Produced By: anterior pituitary
Target: liver, muscle, bone, cartilage, and other tissues
Effect: anabolic hormone; stimulates somatic growth; mobilizes fats; spares glucose
Regulation: stimulated by GHRH release which is triggered by low blood levelsof GH, hypoglycemia, low levels of fatty acids, exercise, other types of stressors and estrogens
inhibited by feedback inhibition, hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, obesity emotional deprivation
Hormone: prolactin
Produced By:
Target:
Effect:
Regulation:
Produced By: anterior pituitary
Target: breast secretory tissue
Effect: promotes lactation
Regulation: stimulated by decreases PIH release enhansed by estrogens, birth control pills, breast feeding, and dopamine-blocking drugs
inhibited by PIH
Hormone: thyroid stimulating hormone
Produced By:
Target:
Effect:
Regulation:
Produced By:anterior pituitary
Target: thyroid gland
Effect: stimulated thyroid gland to release thryoid hormones
Regulation: stimulated by TRH and indirectly by pregnancy and cold temperature
inhibition by feedback inhibition ecerted by thryoid hormones on anterior pituitary and hypothalamus and by GHIH
Hormone: adrenocorticotropic hormone
Produced By:
Target:
Effect:
Regulation:
Produced By: anterior pituitary
Target: adrenal cortex
Effect: promotes release of glucocorticoids and andrgens
Regulation: stimulated by CRH, stimuli that increase CRH release include fever, hypoglycemia and other stressors
inhibited by feedback inhibition exerted by glucocorticoids
Hormone: melanocyte stimulating hormone
Produced By:
Target:
Effect:
Regulation:
Produced By: anterior pituitary
Target: skin
Effect: darkening of the skin, role in learning, and appetite control
Regulation: stimulated by corticotropin releasing hormong
inhibited by dopamine
Hormone: follicle stimulating hormone
Produced By:
Target:
Effect:
Regulation:
Produced By: anterior pituitary
Target: gonads
Effect:stimulates the growth and development of a follicle and ovum and estrogen secretion by follcle, in males it stiulates the seminiferous tubules to grow and produce sperm
Hormone:
Produced By:Lueinizing hormone
Target:
Effect:
Regulation:
Produced By: anterior pituitary
Target: gonads
Effect: stimulates growth and development of a follicle and ovum. ovulating hormone, formation of corpus luteum, in males, caused intersitial cells of the testes to secrete testosterone
Regulation:
Hormone:tetraiodothyronine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)
Produced By:
Target:
Effect:
Regulation:
Produced By: thyroid gland
Target: Basal metablic rate/temperature regulation, carbohydrate/lipid/protein metabolism, nervous system, cardiovascular system, musclar system, skeletal system, gastrointestinal system, reproductive system, and intergumentary system
Effect: promotes mornal Ox use, glucose catabolism, mornal development of nervous system in fetus and infant, normal adult nervous system function, normal functioning of the heart, mornmal muscluar development and function, normal growth and maturation of skeleton, normal GI motility and tone, normal female reproductive ability and lactation, normal hydration and secretory activitiy of skin
Regulation: release of TSH
Hormone: calcitonin
Produced By:
Target:
Effect:
Regulation:
Produced By: thyroid gland
Target:
Effect: lowers the blood level of Ca and P and accelerates the uptake of Ca and P into bones, loss of Ca and P in urine
Regulation: secretion controlled by lood Ca levels
Hormone:Parathyroid hormone
Produced By:
Target:
Effect:
Regulation:
Produced By: parathyroid glands
Target:
Effect: regluated levels of Ca and P in blood, increases osteoclast activity and decreases the activity of osteoblasts, stimulates kidneys to reabsorb more Ca and excrete more P
Regulation:
Hormone: aldosterone
Produced By:
Target:
Effect:
Regulation:
Produced By: adreal glands
Target: distal parts of the kidney tubules
Effect: reduces excretion of Na from the body, enhases Na reabsorption from perspiration, saliva, and gastric juice
Regulation: control by K levels in blood and by renin-angiontesin-aldosterone pathway
Hormone: cortisol
Produced By:
Target:
Effect:
Regulation:
Produced By: adreal gland
Target:
Effect: regulate metabolism and resitance to stress, increase protein breakdown and decreses synthesis,
Regulation:throguh blood levels of cortisol and ACTH
Hormone: glucagon
Produced By:
Target:
Effect:
Regulation:
Produced By: pancreas
Target: increase blood glucose
Effect: increase blood glucose and stimulates breaksown of lipids
Regulation:stimulated by low blood levels of glucose
Hormone: insulin
Produced By:
Target:
Effect:
Regulation:
Produced By:pancreas
Target:
Effect:decreases blood glucose levels
Regulation: stimulated by high blood glucose levels
Hormone: melatonin
Produced By:
Target:
Effect:
Regulation:
Produced By: pineal gland
Target:
Effect: inhibits secretion of gonadatrophins, helps regulate the female reproducive cycle, control the onset of puberty
Regulation: controlled by light outside the body
Hormone: atrial natriuretic peptide
Produced By:
Target:
Effect:
Regulation:
Produced By: right atrium of heart
Target: heart
Effect: causes Na to be excreted into the urine and lost form body which decreases blood volume and blood pressure
Regulation: when central venous pressure is increased
what is another name for the posterior pituitary gland?
neurohypophysis
what is the structure of the posterior pituitary gland?
made largly of axons of hypothalamic neurons
what structure connect the posterior pituitary gland to the hypothalamus?
infundibulum and hypothalamc-hypophyseal tract
where are the posterior pituitary gland's hormones actullay produced?
in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei
what two hormones are stored and released form the posterior pituitary gland?
antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin
how is the control of oxytocin unusal in the body?
they are both positive feedback mechanisms
what is the condition caused by hyposecretion of ADH?
diabetes insipidus
what common substance decrease ADH secretion?
alcohol
what increases secretion of ADH?
pain, low blood pressure, nicotine, morphine
what is the anterior pitiuitary glands other name?
adenohypophysis
how it the anterior pituitary gland controlled by the hypothalamus?
inhibiting and releasing hormones produced by the hypothalamas
what vascular structures aid in the anterior pituitary glands control over the hormones produced by the hypothalamus
protal veins and secondary capillary plexus.
what seven hormorns are produced by the anterior pituitary?
growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, melancyte stimulating hormone, prolactin, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, pro-opiomelanocortin. (POMC)
what is a trpoc hormone?
hormones that regulate the secretory action of other endocrine glands
what happens if growth hormone is over or under-secreted while a child is growing?
hyposecretion causes pituitary dwarfish
hypersecretion causes gigantism and acromegaly
what happens if growth hormone is over or under-secreted whil in adulthood?
acromegaly
what does prolactin do?
stinulate milk production by the breasts
what does excess secretion of prolactin do in males?
impotance and infertillity
what does excess secretion of prolactin do in women?
absence of menstral cycles
what external factor can trigger the relase of TSH?
exposure to extreme cold and emotional stress
what extermal factor cause the release of ACTH?
physiological stress
what is ACTh daily rhythm?
peaking in morning just before awakening
in lower organisms, what part of the pituitary produces MSH?
the intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland
in humans, MSH is linked with wat other hormone?
corticotropin
what does MSH do in humans?
darkening of the skin
how is MSH controlled?
inhibited by dopamine
what inorganic substance is critical for the formation of the thyroid hormones T3 and T4?
iodine
hoe can we use iodine for treatment of hypersecretion of T3 and T4?
injections of radcioactive iodine
why is T3 and T4 the only hormone that body stores?
only area that we use iodine in the body
what happens when T3 and T4 areoverproduced?
graves disease : exphthalmos and goiter
what happens when T3 and T4 is underproduced?
hashimoto's disease, cretinism in childhood, myxedema as adult
is calcitonin critical for calcium balance in the body? what is?
no, no clinical problems as long as parathyroid glands are functional
how does parathyroid hormone and calcitonin function together?
parathyroid hormones regulates the levels of calcium and phophate in the blood
calcitonin is controlled by blood Ca levels
what type of hormones are produced by the adrenal cortex?
steroid hormones
what are the three layers of the adrenal cortex and what hormones do they make?
zona glomerulosa - aldosterone
zona faciculatat -
cortisol
zona reticularis -
androgens
what diseases are caused by over or under production of cortisol?
over: addison's disease
under: cushing's syndrome
how do the androgens produced by the adrenal cortx affect males?
they are overwhelmed by testosterone so are insignificant
how do the androgens produced by the adreal cortex affect females?
contribute to femal sex drive, converted into estrogen, important after menopause
why is the adrenal medulla considered to the sympathetic ganglion?
tumors produce extended "fight or flight" response
what hormones does the adrenal medulla produce and what do these hormones do?
epinephrine and morepinephrine

they are sympathomimetic
what do we call a tumor of the adrenal medull?
pheochromocytomas
type of diabetes that is due to underproduction of insulin and so must be injected to control blood glucose levels
type 1 (insulin-dependent - IDDM)
type of diabetes that is due to lack of insulin receptors on cell membranes. diet, exersice and oral medication, insulin in some cases.
type 2 (noninsulin-dependent 0 NIDDM)
what is a mickmane for the pineal gland and why is it called this?
"the third eye" controlled by light outside the body, regulates the circadian rhythms
what is the only valid claim for the use of melatonin
used for "jet lag" to resets your biological clock
what hormones does the thymus gland produce? what do they do?
thymosins, promotes the production and maturation of T lymphocytes
where is erythropoietin produced, and what does it do?
in kidneys, stimulated red blood cell production
where is ANP produced and what does it do?
in right atrium of heart and it causes Na to be excreted into the urine and lost from the body, which decreses blood volume and therefore blood pressure
what produces leptins and what doe they do?
adipose tissue

tells the body how much stored energy there is.
how do the skin and digestive organs function as endocrine organs?
skin produces cholecalciferal which causes avsorption of Ca from GI tract

digestive organ produce many hormones which affect digestion and the production of digestive enzymes