Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
249 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
how do all sensory receptors work?
|
1. stimulate neurons
2. information is sent to brain 3. cerebral cortex integrates the information 4. forms a perception |
|
what is a sensation?
|
awarness of the stimulus
|
|
what is perceptrion?
|
interpretation of the meaning of the stimulus
|
|
receptors that respond to tissue damage
|
nociceptors
|
|
receptors that respond to changes in temperature
|
thermorecptors
|
|
respond to mechanical forces, such as pressure or fluid movement
|
mechanoreceptors
|
|
what changes usually deform the receptor?
|
mechanoreceptors
|
|
receptors that senses changes in muscles and tendons
|
proprioceptors
|
|
receptors that detect changes in pressure in blood vessels
|
barorecptors
|
|
receptor that senses the degree of inflation in lungs
|
stretch receptors
|
|
receptors that responds to light
|
photoreceptors
|
|
what is the minimum response that a photoreceptor needs?
|
one photon
|
|
receptor that is sensitive to chemical concentration of various substances
|
chemoreceptors
|
|
receptors that responds to concentrations of chemicals
|
osmoreceptors
|
|
what is exteroceptive senses?
|
changes at body surface
|
|
what is proprioceptive senses?
|
changes in muscles and tensons and body position
|
|
what is interoceptive senses?
|
changes in viscera (internal organs)
|
|
what are the ways that a simple receptor is structured?
|
receptors can be free nerve endings or other kinds of cells which are associated with nerve endings
|
|
what is the largest sense organ of the body?
|
exteroceptive
|
|
what is meant by a threshold?
|
the level of intensity that a stimulus can be detected
|
|
do receptors respond to only one stimulus?
|
no, they have a appropriate stimulus called the adequate which will react to a lower threshold. (quicker reaction)
|
|
how are sensory stimuli translated into electrical impluses?
|
1. the stimulus is applied at the tip of the receptor and the deflection is held constant
2. this deformation causes a portion of its cell membrane to become more permeable to (+) ions. 3. the increased permeability of the membrane leads to a localized depolarization. |
|
what is a generator potential?
|
the localized depolarization of a membrane because of increased permeability
|
|
what is meant by a receptor potential?
|
a graded potential that occurs at a sensory receptor membrane
|
|
what is transduction?
|
1. stimulus energy is matched with the specificity of the receptor
2. stimulus is applied within a sensory receptor's receptive field (particular area monitored by the receptor) 3. stimulus energy is converted into the energy of a graded potential called a receptor potential. |
|
what is sensory adaptation?
|
a change in the sensitivity in the presence of a constant stimulus
|
|
fast adapting, often giving bursts of impluses at the beginning and at the end of the stimulus
|
phasic receptors
|
|
what receptors act mainly to report changes in the internal or external environment?
|
phasic receptors
|
|
receptors that provide a susbstained response with little or no adaptation
|
tonic receptors
|
|
where are the three neurons associated with the ascending sensory pathway located?
|
first-order: receptor to dorsal gray horn
second-order: to thalamus or medulla third-order: to cerebral cortex |
|
how is information processed at the perceptual level? (7)
|
1. stumulus had occured (perceptual detection)
2. magnitude estimation 3. spatial discrimination (site of stimulation) 4. feature abstraction (circuit tuned to one feature) 5. quality discrimination 6. pattern recognition 7. projection (where the stimulus is perceived) |
|
what are three sense organs that help us feel touch and pressure?
|
1. free nerve endings (touch/pressure)
2. meissner's corpuscles (light touch) 3. pacinian corpuscles (heavy pressure and vibrations) |
|
what are meissner's and Pacinian corpuscles; receptor cells?
|
connective tissue
|
|
how doe we sense different temperatures?
|
free nerve endings in the skin
|
|
what are the receptors for pain?
|
free nerve endings
|
|
what stimuli can cause pain?
|
mechanical damage, extreme temperatures, or chemicals, deficiency of blood flow and oxygen
|
|
what is substance P?
|
neurotransmitter that is released by fibers when in pain
|
|
do pain receptors adapt?
|
little if at all
|
|
what is the difference between pain threshold and pain tolerance?
|
pain threshold is the perceive pain at the same stimulus intensity but differ in pain tolerance
|
|
what can change a person's pain tolerance?
|
varies with age, chronic pain, cultural and psychological factors
|
|
what sensations do we get from our viscera?
|
pain
|
|
pain that feels as though it comes from elsewhere due to a common nerve pathway
|
referred pain
|
|
pain that comes from a limb that has been amputated
|
phantom pain
|
|
what are the two types of pain fibers?
|
acute pain fibers (A or delta fibers)
Chronic pain fibers (C fibers) |
|
pain fibers tht are thin and myelinated fibers
pain fibers that are thin and unmyelinated fibers |
acute pain fibers; chronic
|
|
pain fibers that conducts up to 30 meters/sec
pain fibers that conducts up to 2 meters/sec |
acute pain fibers; chronic
|
|
pain fibers that are dull, aching and widespread pain
fibers that are sharp and localized |
chronic; acute
|
|
pain fibers that seldom continues after stimulus stops
fibers that continue for some time after stimulus |
actue; chronic
|
|
how does ascending fibers modulate pain?
|
activate larger-diameter touch fibers that interfere with pain transmission in the spinal cord.
|
|
how does descending fiber also modulate pain?
|
have receptors for enkephalins and endorphins and release norepinephrine or serotonin with suppress pain or activate enkephalin releasing neurons
enkephalins act presynaptically to decrease release of substance P and postsynaptically to inhibit action potential generation |
|
how does aspirin function in pain relief?
|
all nociceptors can be sensitized by prostaglandins. aspirin and similar drugs inhibit the synthesis of prostaglandins
|
|
sense stretching of muscle, and cause contraction of the muscle to maintain position
|
muscle spindles
|
|
sense stretching of tendons and cause that muscle to relax to prevent damage to the tendon
|
golgi tendon organs
|
|
what do muscle spindles sense and what reflexes do they cause?
|
detect muslce stretch and initiate a relfex that resists the stretch
|
|
what do golgi tendon organs sense and what reflexes do they cause?
|
detect tendon fibers are stretched by muscle contraction
reflex is for golgi tendon organs are activated, the contracting muscle is inhibited, which causes it to relax |
|
what type of receptor functions in the sense of taste and smell?
|
chemoreceptors
|
|
what type of receptor functions in the sense of hearing and equilibrium?
|
mechanoreceptors
|
|
what type of receptor functions in the sense of vision?
|
photoreceptors
|
|
what type of cells for the receptors for the sense of smell?
|
epithelium
|
|
where are the receptors located that are involved in the sense of smell?
|
roof of the nasal cavity, covering the superior nasal concha on each side of the nasal septum
|
|
describe the olfactory mucosa.
|
contains sensory fibers form the trigeminal nerve which plays a role in initiation of relexes
|
|
what role does mucus play in the sense of smell?
|
chemicals must be dissolved in mucus to stimulate the receptor
|
|
how do we recognixe thousands of different ordors?
|
combinations of primary scents allow us to do this
|
|
are olfactory receptors replaced during a person's lifetime?
|
yes but lost at the rate of about 1% per year
|
|
how long do olfactory receptors live?
|
30-60 days
|
|
what happens to our sense of smell as we get older?
|
we slowly lose it because of the lost receptors of 1% each year
|
|
what bony structure do the olfactory fibers pass through on their way to the oldfactory bulb?
|
cribriform plate
|
|
how quickly does sense of smell adapt?
|
adapts rapidly; partial adaptation in 3-5 secs and complete in 1-5 minutes
|
|
what is the threshold for the sense of smell?
|
has low threshold especially to certain ordors
|
|
what are the five primary taste sensations?
|
salty, sour, sweet, bitter, and umami
|
|
which of the five primary taste sensations has the lowest threshold?
|
bitter
|
|
if we can only detect five tastes, why do foods taste so different from each other?
|
substance produce a misxture of the bast taste sensations
|
|
where are the receptors for tast located?
|
in taste buds which are located primarily in the oral cavity (tongue, soft palate, lining of cheeks, pharynx and larynx)
|
|
of the four types of tissues, which type of cells form the receptors for the sense of taste?
|
epithelial cells
|
|
what type of cells does a taste bud have?
|
receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells
|
|
are the gustatory receptors primary or secondary receptors?
|
secondary
|
|
how does each of the five taste cause depolarization?
|
salty- depolarizes directly
sour- blocking potassium channels with hydrogen ions bitter, sweet, and umami- use G-protein-coupled receptors. the resulting decrease in potassium conductance leasds to depolarization |
|
what cranial nerves transmit our sense of taste?
|
facial (VII), glossopharyngeal (IX), and vagus (X) nerves
|
|
what are the three main divisions of the ear?
|
inner, middle, and outer ear
|
|
what structures make up the outer ear?
|
auditory canal and auricle
|
|
what glands do we find in the outer ear?
|
ceruminous glands
|
|
what is the primary function of the outer ear?
|
to collect sounds waves, amplifies sounds, and aids in location of sounds
|
|
what is the structure of the thmpanic membranes?
|
eardrum
|
|
what structures makes up the middle ear?
|
tympanic membrane, oval window, round window, epitympanic recess, mastoid antrum, auditory tube, auditory ossicles (malleus, stapes, incus) tensor tympani, and stapedius.
|
|
what is the function of the middle ear?
|
it allows for equalization to occur.
|
|
what is the three ossicles in order?
|
MIS, Malleus, incus, stapes
|
|
what do we call an infection of the middle ear?
|
otitis media
|
|
what are the muscles found in the middle ear and what is their function?
|
tensor tympani: tenses the eardrum by pulling it medially,
stapedius: checks vibration of the whole ossicle chain and limits the movement of the stapes in the oval window. |
|
a system of tortuous channels worming through the bone.
|
bony labyrinth
|
|
a continuous series of membranous sacs and ducts contained within the bony labyrinth and following its contours
|
membranous labyrinth
|
|
what are the three main dividions of labyrinths?
|
vestiblue, cochlea, semicircular canals
|
|
which division of the labyrinths is involved in hearing?
|
cochlea
|
|
which division of the labyrinths is involved in static equilibrium?
|
vestibule
|
|
which division of the labyrinths in involved in dynamic equilibrium?
|
semicircular canals
|
|
describe the cochlear.
|
sprial, conical bony chamber.
|
|
where do we find perilymph?
|
in osseous labyrinth
|
|
where do we find endolymph?
|
in membranous labyrinth
|
|
trace the path of sound waves from the outer ear to the cochlear branch of the cranial nerve VIII.
|
1. sound waves vibrate the typanic membrane
2. auditory ossicles virbate. pressure is amplified 3. pressure waves created by the stapes pushing on the oval window move through fluid in the scala 4. sounds with frquencies below hearing travel through the helicontrema and do not excite hair cells. 5. sounds in the hearing range go through the cochlear duct, vibrating the basilar membrane and deflecting hairs on inner hair cells. |
|
how does transduction take place in the organ of Corti?
|
occurs after the trapped stereocilia of the hair cells are tweaked or deflected by localized movements of the basilar membrane
|
|
why does which way the hair cells are bent make a difference?
|
bc if they bend toward the stria vascularis, forces open the transduction channels and cation ienter the cell resulting in depolarization.
if the hair is bent toward the modiolus of the cochlea results in hyperpolarization |
|
why does some gibers from each ear cross over to the opposite cerebral hemisphere?
|
bc it helps localize the sound
|
|
what is the function of the round window?
|
It allows fluid in the cochlea to move, which in turn ensures that hair cells of the basilar membrane will be stimulated and that audition will occur.
|
|
how do we hear high sounds differently from low sounds?
|
the hair cells are in different positions along the length of the basilar membrane and are activated by sound waves of different frequencies.
|
|
how do we her soft sounds from loud sounds?
|
louder sounds cause larger movements of the tympanic membrane, auitory ossicles, and oval window, and pressure waves of greater amplitude in the fluids of the cochlea
|
|
what is the range of human being?
|
20 Hz to 20,000 Hz
|
|
how do the otoliths help maintain static equilibium?
|
otoliths increae the membrane's weight and its resistance to change in motion
|
|
where are the otoliths located?
|
in the otolithic membrane above the hair cells
|
|
how do the maculae of the utricle and saccule function?
|
they monitor the position of the head in space by responding to linear acceleration forces.
|
|
what part of the inner ear helps sense dynamic equilibrium?
|
semicircular canals
|
|
hows does the crista ampullaris function?
|
the cristae respond to changes in the velocity of rotatory movements of the head.
the endolymph in the semicircular ducts moves briefly in the direction opposite the body's rotation, deforming the crista. hairs are bent in opposite direction, depolarizion of the receptors in one ampulla and hairs are bent in the other direction hyperpolarizing the receptors in the other ampulla |
|
what is the kinocilium?
|
at the tall end of the stereocilia array, the larger cilium.
|
|
what is nystagmus and why does it occur after we spin in a chair?
|
a complex of rather strange eye movements that occurs during and immediately after rotation.
eye continue to drift in the same direction of rotation imediately after and then jerk rapidly in opposite direction. this sudden change is caused by the change in the direction in which the cristae are bent after you stop. |
|
what are the four layers of the eyelid?
|
skin, muscle, connective tissue, conjunctiva
|
|
what two muscle are found in the eyelid?
|
orbicularis oculi and levator palpebrae superioris
|
|
what are eyelashes and eyebrows for?
|
to keep out stuff
|
|
where is the lacrimal gland and what does it do?
|
lies in the orbit above the lateral end of the eye and is visible through the conjunctiva when the lid is everted.
it continually releases a dilute saline solution (tears) into the superior part of the conjuctival sac |
|
where do tears go when they leave your eyes?
|
spreads downward and across the eyeball to the medial commissure where they enter into the lacrimal canaliculi then drain into the lacrimal sac and then into the nasolacrimal duct, then empties into the nasal cavity.
|
|
whould activation of the sympathetic or parasympathetic nervous system produce tears?
|
parasympathetic
|
|
what are the six extrinsic eye mucels and how does each one move the eyeball?
|
superior rectus - up
inferior rectus - down medial rectus - in later rectus - out superior oblique - down, out medial rotation inferior oblique - up, out, lateral rotation |
|
what is the strabismus?
|
turned eye
|
|
what is phoria?
|
weakness of the eye muscles
|
|
what are the three ayers of the eyeball?
|
fibrous tunic, Vascular tunic, nervous tunic
|
|
what structures are in the fibrous tunci?
|
cornea and scleara
|
|
where do you fin blood vessels in the fibrous tunic?
|
sclera
|
|
why is the cornea clear?
|
it lets light enter the eye
|
|
what structures are in the vascular tunic?
|
chroid, ciliary body, iris
|
|
what are the two major functions of the ciliary body?
|
makes aqueous humor and accomodation
|
|
how do the muscles of the ciliary body and the lens work together to allow you to see close objects?
|
the lens thins when stretched by suspensory ligaments- vision far away
the lens thickens when suspensory ligaments is relaxed- vision close |
|
how and where is aqueous humor produced?
|
secreted into the posterior chamber by the ciliary body
and is produce by filtration |
|
Where does the aqueous humor drain?
|
It flows through the narrow cleft between the front of the lens and the back of the iris, to escape through the pupil into the anterior chamber, and then to drain out of the eye via the trabecular meshwork. From here, it drains into Schlemm's canal by one of two ways: directly, via aqueous vein to the episcleral vein, or indirectly, via collector channels to the episcleral vein by intrascleral plexus and eventually into the veins of the orbit.
|
|
what happens if too much aqueous humor is prduced or too little drains
|
produces intraocular pressure called glaucoma
|
|
why is the lens of the eye clear?
|
to allow light in
|
|
what are crystallins?
|
proteins in the lens
|
|
what is a cataract?
|
the crystallins become yellow then opaque.
|
|
what does the iris do?
|
divides anterior and prosterior chamber
|
|
what happens when the iris receives stimulation from the sympathetic nervous system?
|
dilation
|
|
what happens when the iris receives stimulation from the parasympathetic nervous system?
|
constriction
|
|
what is the pupil?
|
the round central opening of the iris
|
|
what is the structure of the retina?
|
choroid
pigmented epithelium Rods and cones bipolar cells ganglion cells |
|
where are the photoreceptors located in relationship to the incoming light?
|
in the fovea centalis
|
|
what are the two types of photoreceptors?
|
rods and cones
|
|
what is the fovea centralis and why is it important?
|
central pit where light is focused by the cornea and lens
it directs light to the photoreceptors |
|
which reeptors allow you to see in dim light and to sense fast moving objects?
|
rods
|
|
which receptors allow you to see colors and to have good visual acuity?
|
cones
|
|
what about rods and cons relationship with the bipolar and ganglion cells allow for fine discrimination?
|
light passes through the retina to excite the photoreceptor cells. information then flows in the opposite direction via bipolar and ganglion cells.
|
|
what does 20/20 mean?
|
20(your vision in ft)/ 20 ("normal" persons vision in ft)
|
|
what do you find in the posterior cavity?
|
vitreous humor
|
|
why is examination of the interior of the eye important in a medical examination of a patient?
|
shows a direct view of the microcirculation
|
|
how does your eye focus if you have emmetropia?
|
good vision 20/20
|
|
how does your eye focus if you have myopia
|
focus is infront of the fovea centralis = nearsightedness
|
|
how does your eye focus if you have hyperopia?
|
behind the foves centralis = farsightedness
|
|
how does your eye focus if you have astigmatism?
|
light does not focus to a sigle point on the retina
|
|
how does your eye focus if you have presbyopia?
|
loss of ability to accommodate or see up close
|
|
what is a diopter?
|
the inverse of the focal length (1/FL) is used to describe the power of a lens
|
|
what are your photoreceptors doing in the dark?
|
1. Na channels are held open by a nucleotide called cyclic CMP
2. inflow of sodium triggers the continual release of neurotransmitter glutamate 3. glutamate is inhibitory which prevents bipolar cells from firing by hyperpolarizing them |
|
what happens to the photoreceptors when light hits them?
|
1. light strikes the retina, which straightens out (no longer fits into the opsin)
2. the two separate (bleaching) 3. the opsin becomes an active enzyme, activates other enzymes that break down cyclic GMP 4. Na channels close 5. receptor hyperpolarizes, stopping release of glutamate 6. bipolar cells fire, causing action potentials in ganglion cells and information is sent to the visual cortex |
|
trace the path of impulses from the photoreceptors to the occipital cortex.
|
1. the ganglion cells axons form the optic nerve.
2. the optic nerve enter the rear of the orbit and pass to the underside of the brain to the optic chiasma 3. in the optic chiasma, half of the fibers from each eye cross over to the other side. 4. fibers from the temporal side of the retina do not cross the midline, but travel in the optic tract on the same side of the brain. 5. fiber from the nasal side of the retina cross the optic chiasma and travel in the optic tract to the opposite side of the brain. 6. the divided output goes through the optic tract to the paired lateral geniculate bodies 7. then via the geniculocalcaraine tract to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe of the brain. |
|
wht is the most common form of color blindness?
|
red-green color blindness
|
|
what chromosome carries red-green information?
|
X- chromosomes
|
|
secrete their prodcuts through ducts into body cavities or onto body surfaces
|
exocrine glands
|
|
secrete hormones into the interstitial fluid where it enters the blood.
|
endocrine glands
|
|
hormones that pass into the blood and act on distant cells
|
circulating hormones
|
|
restricted to the interstital fluid and affect only nearby cells
|
paracrine secretions
|
|
affect only the secreting cell itself
|
autocrine secretions
|
|
how are circulating hormones inactivated and/or removed from the body?
|
inactivated by the liver and excreted by the kidneys
|
|
what are the differences in the nervous system and endocrine system in terms of how or what is gives off, what it affects, time it takes to act, and effect time
|
nervous system:
nerve impulses causes muscles to contract and glands to secrete act in milliseconds effects are brief endocrine system: hormones affect virtually all body tissues may take hours effects long lasting |
|
how does the nervous system and the endocrine system effect each other?
|
certain parts of the nervous system stimulate or inhibit the release of hormones
hormones may promote or inhibit the generation of nerve impulses some neurotransmitters act as hormones |
|
why do hormones affect only certain organs?
|
they affect specific target cell that have receptors which recognize that particular hormone
|
|
what hormones are steroids?
|
gonadal and adrenocortical hormones
|
|
what are steriod hormones made from?
|
cholesterol
|
|
how do steriod hormones change what is hoing on inside a cell?
|
they act on intracellular receptors, which directly activate genes
|
|
how do protein or peptide (water-soluble hormones) affect what goes on inside a cell?
|
they act on receptors in the plasma membrane. these receptors are coupled via regulatory molecules called G proteins to one or more intracellular second messengers which mediate the target cell's response
|
|
how is the effect amplifies within the cell?
|
each activated adenylate cyclase generates large numbers of cAMP molecules, and a single kinase enzyme can catalytze hundreds of reactions.
|
|
when target cells form more receptors in response to rising blood levels of the specific hormones
|
up-regulation
|
|
when prolonged exposure to high hormone concentrations desensitizes the target cells, so that they respond less vigorously to hormonal stimulation
|
down-regulation
|
|
what are prostaglandins, what are they made from and what do they do?
|
eicosanoids
lipids affect wide varity of tissues, raise blood pressure, uterine contractions, blood clotting, pain and inflammation |
|
what are leukotrines, what are they made from and what do they do?
|
eicosanoids
lipids affect white blood cells, mediate inflammation and some allergic reactions |
|
how are steroid hormones administered?
|
orally
|
|
how are peptide and protein hormones administered?
|
digested and must be given by another route other than orallly
|
|
what are the three ways hormones may be regulated?
|
1. by the anterior pituitar gland bc it releases tropic hormones that stimulate other endocrin glands to secrete their hormones
2. some glands respond directly to change in the internal environment 3. the nervous system stimulates some glands directly |
|
what bony structure protects the pituitary gland?
|
sella turcica of the sphenoid bone
|
|
Hormone: Oxytocin
Produced By: Target: Effect: Regulation: |
Produced By: Posterior Pituitary Hormones
Target: Uterus Effect: stimulates uterine contractions; initiates labor; initiates milk ejection Regulation: stimulated by impluses from pyothalamic neurons in response to cervial/uterine stretching and suking of infant at breast inhibited by lack of appropriate neural stimuli |
|
Hormone:antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Produced By: Target: Effect: Regulation: |
Produced By: posterior pituitary hormone
Target: kidneys Effect: stimulates kidney tubule cells to reabsorb water Regulation: stimulated by impluses from hypothalamic neurons in response to increased osmolality of blood or decrease in blood volume; also stimulated by pain, some drugs, low blood pressure inhibited by adequate hydreation of the body and by alcohol |
|
Hormone: growth hormone (GH)
Produced By: Target: Effect: Regulation: |
Produced By: anterior pituitary
Target: liver, muscle, bone, cartilage, and other tissues Effect: anabolic hormone; stimulates somatic growth; mobilizes fats; spares glucose Regulation: stimulated by GHRH release which is triggered by low blood levelsof GH, hypoglycemia, low levels of fatty acids, exercise, other types of stressors and estrogens inhibited by feedback inhibition, hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, obesity emotional deprivation |
|
Hormone: prolactin
Produced By: Target: Effect: Regulation: |
Produced By: anterior pituitary
Target: breast secretory tissue Effect: promotes lactation Regulation: stimulated by decreases PIH release enhansed by estrogens, birth control pills, breast feeding, and dopamine-blocking drugs inhibited by PIH |
|
Hormone: thyroid stimulating hormone
Produced By: Target: Effect: Regulation: |
Produced By:anterior pituitary
Target: thyroid gland Effect: stimulated thyroid gland to release thryoid hormones Regulation: stimulated by TRH and indirectly by pregnancy and cold temperature inhibition by feedback inhibition ecerted by thryoid hormones on anterior pituitary and hypothalamus and by GHIH |
|
Hormone: adrenocorticotropic hormone
Produced By: Target: Effect: Regulation: |
Produced By: anterior pituitary
Target: adrenal cortex Effect: promotes release of glucocorticoids and andrgens Regulation: stimulated by CRH, stimuli that increase CRH release include fever, hypoglycemia and other stressors inhibited by feedback inhibition exerted by glucocorticoids |
|
Hormone: melanocyte stimulating hormone
Produced By: Target: Effect: Regulation: |
Produced By: anterior pituitary
Target: skin Effect: darkening of the skin, role in learning, and appetite control Regulation: stimulated by corticotropin releasing hormong inhibited by dopamine |
|
Hormone: follicle stimulating hormone
Produced By: Target: Effect: Regulation: |
Produced By: anterior pituitary
Target: gonads Effect:stimulates the growth and development of a follicle and ovum and estrogen secretion by follcle, in males it stiulates the seminiferous tubules to grow and produce sperm |
|
Hormone:
Produced By:Lueinizing hormone Target: Effect: Regulation: |
Produced By: anterior pituitary
Target: gonads Effect: stimulates growth and development of a follicle and ovum. ovulating hormone, formation of corpus luteum, in males, caused intersitial cells of the testes to secrete testosterone Regulation: |
|
Hormone:tetraiodothyronine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)
Produced By: Target: Effect: Regulation: |
Produced By: thyroid gland
Target: Basal metablic rate/temperature regulation, carbohydrate/lipid/protein metabolism, nervous system, cardiovascular system, musclar system, skeletal system, gastrointestinal system, reproductive system, and intergumentary system Effect: promotes mornal Ox use, glucose catabolism, mornal development of nervous system in fetus and infant, normal adult nervous system function, normal functioning of the heart, mornmal muscluar development and function, normal growth and maturation of skeleton, normal GI motility and tone, normal female reproductive ability and lactation, normal hydration and secretory activitiy of skin Regulation: release of TSH |
|
Hormone: calcitonin
Produced By: Target: Effect: Regulation: |
Produced By: thyroid gland
Target: Effect: lowers the blood level of Ca and P and accelerates the uptake of Ca and P into bones, loss of Ca and P in urine Regulation: secretion controlled by lood Ca levels |
|
Hormone:Parathyroid hormone
Produced By: Target: Effect: Regulation: |
Produced By: parathyroid glands
Target: Effect: regluated levels of Ca and P in blood, increases osteoclast activity and decreases the activity of osteoblasts, stimulates kidneys to reabsorb more Ca and excrete more P Regulation: |
|
Hormone: aldosterone
Produced By: Target: Effect: Regulation: |
Produced By: adreal glands
Target: distal parts of the kidney tubules Effect: reduces excretion of Na from the body, enhases Na reabsorption from perspiration, saliva, and gastric juice Regulation: control by K levels in blood and by renin-angiontesin-aldosterone pathway |
|
Hormone: cortisol
Produced By: Target: Effect: Regulation: |
Produced By: adreal gland
Target: Effect: regulate metabolism and resitance to stress, increase protein breakdown and decreses synthesis, Regulation:throguh blood levels of cortisol and ACTH |
|
Hormone: glucagon
Produced By: Target: Effect: Regulation: |
Produced By: pancreas
Target: increase blood glucose Effect: increase blood glucose and stimulates breaksown of lipids Regulation:stimulated by low blood levels of glucose |
|
Hormone: insulin
Produced By: Target: Effect: Regulation: |
Produced By:pancreas
Target: Effect:decreases blood glucose levels Regulation: stimulated by high blood glucose levels |
|
Hormone: melatonin
Produced By: Target: Effect: Regulation: |
Produced By: pineal gland
Target: Effect: inhibits secretion of gonadatrophins, helps regulate the female reproducive cycle, control the onset of puberty Regulation: controlled by light outside the body |
|
Hormone: atrial natriuretic peptide
Produced By: Target: Effect: Regulation: |
Produced By: right atrium of heart
Target: heart Effect: causes Na to be excreted into the urine and lost form body which decreases blood volume and blood pressure Regulation: when central venous pressure is increased |
|
what is another name for the posterior pituitary gland?
|
neurohypophysis
|
|
what is the structure of the posterior pituitary gland?
|
made largly of axons of hypothalamic neurons
|
|
what structure connect the posterior pituitary gland to the hypothalamus?
|
infundibulum and hypothalamc-hypophyseal tract
|
|
where are the posterior pituitary gland's hormones actullay produced?
|
in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei
|
|
what two hormones are stored and released form the posterior pituitary gland?
|
antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin
|
|
how is the control of oxytocin unusal in the body?
|
they are both positive feedback mechanisms
|
|
what is the condition caused by hyposecretion of ADH?
|
diabetes insipidus
|
|
what common substance decrease ADH secretion?
|
alcohol
|
|
what increases secretion of ADH?
|
pain, low blood pressure, nicotine, morphine
|
|
what is the anterior pitiuitary glands other name?
|
adenohypophysis
|
|
how it the anterior pituitary gland controlled by the hypothalamus?
|
inhibiting and releasing hormones produced by the hypothalamas
|
|
what vascular structures aid in the anterior pituitary glands control over the hormones produced by the hypothalamus
|
protal veins and secondary capillary plexus.
|
|
what seven hormorns are produced by the anterior pituitary?
|
growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, melancyte stimulating hormone, prolactin, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, pro-opiomelanocortin. (POMC)
|
|
what is a trpoc hormone?
|
hormones that regulate the secretory action of other endocrine glands
|
|
what happens if growth hormone is over or under-secreted while a child is growing?
|
hyposecretion causes pituitary dwarfish
hypersecretion causes gigantism and acromegaly |
|
what happens if growth hormone is over or under-secreted whil in adulthood?
|
acromegaly
|
|
what does prolactin do?
|
stinulate milk production by the breasts
|
|
what does excess secretion of prolactin do in males?
|
impotance and infertillity
|
|
what does excess secretion of prolactin do in women?
|
absence of menstral cycles
|
|
what external factor can trigger the relase of TSH?
|
exposure to extreme cold and emotional stress
|
|
what extermal factor cause the release of ACTH?
|
physiological stress
|
|
what is ACTh daily rhythm?
|
peaking in morning just before awakening
|
|
in lower organisms, what part of the pituitary produces MSH?
|
the intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland
|
|
in humans, MSH is linked with wat other hormone?
|
corticotropin
|
|
what does MSH do in humans?
|
darkening of the skin
|
|
how is MSH controlled?
|
inhibited by dopamine
|
|
what inorganic substance is critical for the formation of the thyroid hormones T3 and T4?
|
iodine
|
|
hoe can we use iodine for treatment of hypersecretion of T3 and T4?
|
injections of radcioactive iodine
|
|
why is T3 and T4 the only hormone that body stores?
|
only area that we use iodine in the body
|
|
what happens when T3 and T4 areoverproduced?
|
graves disease : exphthalmos and goiter
|
|
what happens when T3 and T4 is underproduced?
|
hashimoto's disease, cretinism in childhood, myxedema as adult
|
|
is calcitonin critical for calcium balance in the body? what is?
|
no, no clinical problems as long as parathyroid glands are functional
|
|
how does parathyroid hormone and calcitonin function together?
|
parathyroid hormones regulates the levels of calcium and phophate in the blood
calcitonin is controlled by blood Ca levels |
|
what type of hormones are produced by the adrenal cortex?
|
steroid hormones
|
|
what are the three layers of the adrenal cortex and what hormones do they make?
|
zona glomerulosa - aldosterone
zona faciculatat - cortisol zona reticularis - androgens |
|
what diseases are caused by over or under production of cortisol?
|
over: addison's disease
under: cushing's syndrome |
|
how do the androgens produced by the adrenal cortx affect males?
|
they are overwhelmed by testosterone so are insignificant
|
|
how do the androgens produced by the adreal cortex affect females?
|
contribute to femal sex drive, converted into estrogen, important after menopause
|
|
why is the adrenal medulla considered to the sympathetic ganglion?
|
tumors produce extended "fight or flight" response
|
|
what hormones does the adrenal medulla produce and what do these hormones do?
|
epinephrine and morepinephrine
they are sympathomimetic |
|
what do we call a tumor of the adrenal medull?
|
pheochromocytomas
|
|
type of diabetes that is due to underproduction of insulin and so must be injected to control blood glucose levels
|
type 1 (insulin-dependent - IDDM)
|
|
type of diabetes that is due to lack of insulin receptors on cell membranes. diet, exersice and oral medication, insulin in some cases.
|
type 2 (noninsulin-dependent 0 NIDDM)
|
|
what is a mickmane for the pineal gland and why is it called this?
|
"the third eye" controlled by light outside the body, regulates the circadian rhythms
|
|
what is the only valid claim for the use of melatonin
|
used for "jet lag" to resets your biological clock
|
|
what hormones does the thymus gland produce? what do they do?
|
thymosins, promotes the production and maturation of T lymphocytes
|
|
where is erythropoietin produced, and what does it do?
|
in kidneys, stimulated red blood cell production
|
|
where is ANP produced and what does it do?
|
in right atrium of heart and it causes Na to be excreted into the urine and lost from the body, which decreses blood volume and therefore blood pressure
|
|
what produces leptins and what doe they do?
|
adipose tissue
tells the body how much stored energy there is. |
|
how do the skin and digestive organs function as endocrine organs?
|
skin produces cholecalciferal which causes avsorption of Ca from GI tract
digestive organ produce many hormones which affect digestion and the production of digestive enzymes |