Structure & Function 1 Exam 4

Front 1

the most abundant and most versatile glial cells

Back 1

astrocytes

Front 2

their radiating processes cling to neurons and their synaptic endings , and cover nearby capillaries supporting and bracing the neurons and anchoring them to their nutrient supply lines, the blood capillaries.

Back 2

astrocytes

Front 3

small ovoid cells with relatively long "thorny" processes that thouch nearby neurons, monitoring their health and protects certain neurons.

Back 3

microglia

Front 4

line the central cavities of the brain and the spinal cord where they form a fairly permeable barrier between the cerebrospinal fluid the fills those cavites and the tissue fluid bathing the cells of the CNS

Back 4

ependymal cells

Front 5

line up along the thicker neuron fibers in the CNS and wrap their processes tightly around the fibers in the CNS

Back 5

oligodendrocytes

Front 6

what are the neuroglia in the PNS?

Back 6

satellite cells and schwann cells

Front 7

surrond neuron cell bodies located in the PNS and are thought to have many of the same functions in the PNS as astrocytes do in CNS

Back 7

Satellite cells

Front 8

surround and form myelin sheaths aroung the larger nerve fivers in the PNS

Back 8

schwann cells

Front 9

what does gray matter contain?

Back 9

cell bodies, dendrites , unmyelinated axons and neuroglia

Front 10

where is gray matter found?

Back 10

in spinal cord (it forms a central H in the cord)
thin outer shell over cerebral hemispheres in brain
deep in cerebrum call nuclei

Front 11

white matter contains the _____ process of axons

Back 11

myelinated

Front 12

made of lipid and protein and acts as an insulator during conduction of electrical impulses through nerves and increases the speed at which the impluse travels

Back 12

myelin

Front 13

what are unmyelinated axons covered by?

Back 13

thin coat of neuroglial plasma membrane

Front 14

what happens if myelin was lost?

Back 14

multiple sclerosis-
causes nerves to "short circuit" causing muscle weakness, loss of coordination, visual impairment and speech disturbances

Front 15

why is the single process of the uniplar cell considered to be virtually all axon?

Back 15

bc it conducts impluses away from the cell body

Front 16

structural classification:
several dendrites and one axon

Back 16

multipolar

Front 17

structural classification:
neurons of CNS are mostly this type.

Back 17

multipolar

Front 18

structural classification:
one main dendrite and one axon usually found in special sense organs.

Back 18

bipolar

Front 19

structural classification:
one process and are always sensory neurons

Back 19

unipolar

Front 20

neurons that transmit sensory imupulses that have specialized receptor ends at tips of dendrites or the dendrites are in contact with specialized receptore cells in the skin or sense organs

Back 20

sensory or afferent neurons

Front 21

what cells are sensory neurons?

Back 21

most unipolar sone bipolar

Front 22

neurons that transmit motor nerve impluses from CNS to effectors

Back 22

motor or efferent neurons

Front 23

what is afferent, efferent, and association neurons?

Back 23

afferent- sensory
efferent- motor
association- interneurons

Front 24

multipolar neurons in CNS that form linnks between other neruons

Back 24

interneurons

Front 25

how does a PNS fiber repair itself?

Back 25

1. distal portion of axon and myelin sheah die, but neurolemma remains
2. proximal axon develops sprouts, one of which grows into tube of sheath cells
3. remaining schwann cells divide and form a regeneration tube.

Front 26

an electric voltage difference across the membrane

Back 26

resting membrane potential

Front 27

what ions are found in higher concentrations INSIDE the cell?

Back 27

K+

Front 28

what ions are found in hight concentrations OUTSIDE the cell?

Back 28

Na+

Front 29

how does inos move in and out of the cell?

Back 29

active transport - Na/K pumps

Front 30

what makes current in a cell?

Back 30

the movement of (+) charges ions

Front 31

what are leakage channels?

Back 31

channels that are always open

Front 32

what are gated channels?

Back 32

channels that have gates that only open or close in repsonse to a specific stimulus

Front 33

what are the four gated ion channels?

Back 33

voltage
chemically
mechanicallly
and light

Front 34

ion channels that open in response to a change in memebrane potential

Back 34

voltage gated

Front 35

ion channels that ioen or close in response to chemicals

Back 35

chemically gated

Front 36

ion channels that open or close in response to vibration or pressure (such as sound waves or touch)

Back 36

mechanically gated

Front 37

ion channels that open or close in response to light

Back 37

light gated

Front 38

the presence of chemically, mechanically, or light gated channels that allows for ____ potentials

Back 38

graded

Front 39

a small change from the resting potential that is caused by the appropriate stumulusand is proportional to the strength of the stimulus

Back 39

graded potential

Front 40

if the stimulus increases the polartization (inside becomes more (-) ) then membrane is _____.

Back 40

hyperpolarized

Front 41

if the stimulus decreases the polarizations (inside becomes less (-) ) then membrane is ____.

Back 41

depolarized

Front 42

incoming signal operating over short distances

Back 42

graded potential

Front 43

incoming signal operating over long-distance signals of axons

Back 43

action potentials

Front 44

a brief reversal of membrane potential with a total amplituede of about 100mV

Back 44

action potential

Front 45

which potential does depolarization, then repolarization, then hyperpolarization occur?

Back 45

action potential

Front 46

when depolarization at the stimulation sit reaches a certain critical level called ____ depolarization become self-generating.

Back 46

threshold

Front 47

the membrane potential at which the outward current created by K movement is exactly equal to the inward current created by Na movement.

Back 47

threshold

Front 48

how is a graded potential generated? (2)

Back 48

1. region of cell has chemically, mechanically or light gated channels give a graded response
2. the channels either open or close changing the flow of ions across the membrane, producing a local flow of current

Front 49

why do graded potentials die out so quickly?

Back 49

bc they are localized

Front 50

how is an action potential generated? (4)

Back 50

1. depolarizing phase: Na channels open
2. repolarizing phase: Na channels inactivating, K channels open
3. hyperpolarization: K channels remain open Na channels resetting
4. reaches resting state again.

Front 51

what happens in depolarization in action potentials? (3)

Back 51

1. when depolarization = or exceeds the threshold amount many voltage gated Na channels open and Na rushes in
2. the membrane goes to 0 and momentarily becomes (+)
3. remain open for a few ten-thousandths of a sec then closed by inactivation gate.

Front 52

what happens in repolarization in action potentials? (2)

Back 52

1. the same depolarization that opens Na channels also opens K channels but more slowly, so sld be fully opened by the time Na channels are closing
2. k rushes out of cell and reestablishes the resting membrane potential

Front 53

time during which no stimulus, no matter how strong, can cause another action potential (Na channels are open)

Back 53

absolute refractory period

Front 54

time when a stimulus may cause an action potential if the stumulus is great enough (larger than the usual threshold- while K gates are open but Na gates have closed)

Back 54

relative refractory period

Front 55

what is happening that accounts for the difference between absolute and relative refractory periods?

Back 55

absolute refractory periods- Na gates are already opened so cant cause another action potential
relative refactory period- Na gates are closed so can cause an action potential

Front 56

why does the progagation of an impulse travel in only one direction?

Back 56

bc the membrane is refractory behind the leading edge of the action potential

Front 57

an unmyelinated axon cunducts an impluse over its entire surface call what?

Back 57

continuous conduction

Front 58

in an myelinated fiber the depolarization seems to "jump" from one node to the next.

Back 58

saltatory conduction.

Front 59

what way spreads the impulse faster? contiuous or saltatory conduction? why?

Back 59

saltatory conduction
bc only a small portion of the axon is depolarized.

Front 60

why are the gapes (nodes of Ranvier) needed in saltatory conduction?

Back 60

bc myelin insulated the axon which does not permit conduction except at the nodes of Ranvier

Front 61

what are the two factors that affect the speed of an impluse?

Back 61

either myelin or unmyelinated
and diameter of fiber (larger diameter transmits faster than small diameter fiber)

Front 62

how does anesthetics such as novacaine and lidocaine block pain?

Back 62

by preventing the voltage gated Na channels in the pain sensing nerves from opening and blocking the transmission of an impluse.

Front 63

when the action potential reaches the synaptic end bulb, in addition to the Na and K channels, what other ion comes into the cell through voltage-gated channels and causes the release of the neurotransmitter?

Back 63

Ca++ channels

Front 64

how does the central nervous system perceive a stimulus as being weak or strong?

Back 64

the stronger the stimulus the more gated channels open or close

Front 65

the additive effect of two or more stimuli is called ____.

Back 65

summation

Front 66

when one neuron synapses with another neuron, the first neuron is called the _____ neuron.

Back 66

presynaptic

Front 67

the neuron that is stimulated is called the _____ neuron.

Back 67

postsynaptic

Front 68

if a neurotransmitter depolarizes a neuron, it is called ____.

Back 68

excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

Front 69

if the neurotransmitter hyperpolarizes the neuron, it is called _____.

Back 69

inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

Front 70

what is happening to the neuron when a neurotransmitter is inhibitory?

Back 70

brings the neuron farther away from threshold.

Front 71

what is happening to the neuron when a neurotransmitter is excitatory?

Back 71

brings the neuron closer to threshold.

Front 72

summation that occurs when one or more presynaptic neurons transit impulses in rapid-fire order and bursts of neurotransmitter are released in quick succession

Back 72

temporal summation

Front 73

summation where the 1st impulse produces a small EPSP and before it dissipates, successive impluses trigger more EPSP producing a much greater depolarization

Back 73

temporal summation

Front 74

summation occurs when the postsynaptic neuron is stimulated at the same time by large number of terminals from the same or more commonly, different neurons.

Back 74

spatial summation

Front 75

what is electrical synapses?

Back 75

neurons connected by gap junctions

Front 76

what type of synapses transmits very rapidly, are unidirection or bidirectional?

Back 76

electrical synapses

Front 77

synapses that uses neurotransmitters?

Back 77

chemical

Front 78

what synapse is more common?

Back 78

chemical

Front 79

where is electrical synapses found in adults?

Back 79

in brain controlling stereotyped movements and in hippocampus

Front 80

what are the 5 classes of neurotransmitters?

Back 80

acetylcholine
amino acids
biogenic amines
neuropeptides (proteins)
gases

Front 81

where is acetylcholine used as a nerotransmitter? (3)

Back 81

1. at NMJ with skeletal muscle
2. at parasympathetic effects on the heart
3. areas of brain

Front 82

how is acetylcholine broken down and broken down into what?

Back 82

inactivated by acetylcholinesterase
breaks it into acetyl and choline portions

Front 83

what effect do the amino acids glutamic acid and aspartic acid have in the CNS?

Back 83

excitatory

Front 84

what effect do the amino acids GABA and glycine have in the CNS?

Back 84

inhibitory

Front 85

what are examples of catecholamines and what are they associated with?

Back 85

norepinephrine and epinephrine - autonomic nervous system
and depomine - involved in emotional responses in cerebral cortex and in other areas regulates gross, automatic movements of skeletal muscle

Front 86

what are indolamines?

Back 86

serotonin and histamine

Front 87

what are neuropeptides?

Back 87

chains of 3-40 amino acids, numerous and widespread in CNS and PNS

Front 88

what is a neuromodulator?

Back 88

a neuropeptide that synthesized in cell body, released with neurotransmitters , diffuse locally, and bind to nonsymaptic sites

Front 89

naturally occuring neurotransmitters that bind to same receptors in brain ad morphine and opium

Back 89

opiates

Front 90

what neuropeptides have pain-blocking ability?

Back 90

enkephalins, endorphins, dynorphins

Front 91

how do purines act as neurotransmitters?

Back 91

it produces a fast excitatory respone at certain receptors which either can mediate fast excitatory responses or trigger slow second messenger responses

Front 92

term used to describe a chemical messenger released by a neuron that does not directly cause EPSP or IPSP but instead affects the strength of synaptic transmission

Back 92

neuromodulator

Front 93

what neurotransmitters are made only when needed?

Back 93

Nitric oxide (gases)

Front 94

____ is thought to act as a retrograde messenger that sends a signal to increase symaptic strength.

Back 94

Nitric oxide

Front 95

excessive release of NO contributes to _____.

Back 95

brain damage

Front 96

what neurotransmitter id deficient in alzheimers disease and parkinsons disease?

Back 96

alzheimer's - acetylcholine
parkinson's - dopamine

Front 97

how are neurotransmitters removed from the synaptic cleft?

Back 97

1. diffusion
2. Enzymatic degradation
3. reuptake into cells

Front 98

an agent that enhances symaptic transmission or mimics the effect of a natural neurotransmitter

Back 98

agonist

Front 99

an agent the blocks the action of a neurotransmitter

Back 99

antagonist

Front 100

groupings of neurons in CNS that synapse with each other and work together to perfom a common function

Back 100

neuronal pools

Front 101

a single presynaptic neuron synapses with a single postsynaptic neuron

Back 101

simple series circuit

Front 102

a single presynaptic neuron synapses with several postsynaptic neruons which amplifies the signal and may send signals to several different regions of the CNS

Back 102

diverging circuit

Front 103

several presynaptic neurons synapse with a single postsynaptic neuron

Back 103

converging circuits

Front 104

circuit the permits more effective stimulation of the postsynaptic neuron

Back 104

converging circuits

Front 105

circuit that is constructed so that once a presynaptic neuron is stimulated, it will cause the postsynaptic neuron to transmit a series of impulses

Back 105

reverberating circuit

Front 106

what is a reverberating circuit good for?

Back 106

breathing, coorinated muscle activities, waking up and short-term memory

Front 107

a single presynaptic neuron stimulates a group of neurons, each of which synapses with a common postganglionic cell. the last neuron sends out impulses in quick succession.

Back 107

parallel after-discharge circuits

Front 108

whare is a parallel after-discharge circuit good for?

Back 108

mathematical calculations

Front 109

what are the three meninges that surroun the brain and spinal cord?

Back 109

dura mater, artachnoid mater, pia mater

Front 110

what is the innermost layer of the meninges?

Back 110

pia mater

Front 111

what is the outermost layer of the meninges?

Back 111

dura mater

Front 112

what is the dura mater like?

Back 112

desne irregular connective tissue with many blood vessels and nerves

Front 113

what are the thre partitions of the dura mater and where does it support and protect?

Back 113

flax cerebri- between halves of cerebrum
flax cerebelli- between lobes of cerebellum
tentorium cerebelli- between cerebrum and cerebellum

Front 114

where does the dura mater form a closed sac in spinal cord?

Back 114

S2

Front 115

what does the epidural space contain?

Back 115

fat, connective tissue, and blood vessels

Front 116

what is the arachnoid mater like?

Back 116

thin membrane that lacks blood vessels

Front 117

the space between the dura and arachnoid is called the _____ which is filed with what?

Back 117

subdural space; filed with interstitial fluid

Front 118

where would you find cerebrospinal fluid?

Back 118

in subarachnoid space

Front 119

what is the pia mater like?

Back 119

innermost layer made of thin nearly transparent that has many nerves and blood vessels

Front 120

what also protects the brain and spinal cord?

Back 120

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Front 121

what does cerebrospinal fluid do for the brain?

Back 121

protects and nourishes

Front 122

where is the cerebrospinal fluid formed?

Back 122

by the choroid plexuses of the brain

Front 123

how is cerebrospina fluid formed?

Back 123

by filtration and secretion

Front 124

where are the four ventricles in the brain?

Back 124

two lateral bentricles in centers of the cerbral hemispheres
third is above the hypothalamus and between the halves of the thalamus
fourth is between the brain stem and the cerebellum

Front 125

where does the cerebrospinal fluid flow?

Back 125

flows from lateral ventricles into the third ventricle through the interventricular foramina
2. passes through the cerebral aqueduct to the fourth ventricle
3. enters the subarachnoid space by three openings
4. flows throught the central canal of the spinal cord and in the subarachnoid space around the brain and spinal cord.

Front 126

where is the CSF reabsorbed?

Back 126

through the arachnoid villi

Front 127

areas in the dural layers that separate to collect venous blood from the brain and direct it into the internal jugular veins of the neck

Back 127

dural venous sinuses

Front 128

what nerves come from and go to the cervical enlargement?

Back 128

C4, C5, C6, C7, C8, T1

Front 129

what nerves come from and go to the lumbar enlargement?

Back 129

T9-T12

Front 130

what is the end of the spinal cord called?

Back 130

conus medularis

Front 131

what is the filum terminale?

Back 131

where the pia attaches to coccyx by extension

Front 132

triangular thickenings of pia mater, help to suspend the cord within the dura

Back 132

denticulate ligaments

Front 133

the collection of nerve roots at the inferior end of the vertebral canal

Back 133

cauda equina

Front 134

where are spinal taps done?

Back 134

between L3 and L4 or between L4 and L5

Front 135

what type of nerves enter or leave the spinal cord by the posterior or dorsal root?

Back 135

sensory fibers

Front 136

what type of nerves enter or leave the spinal cord by the anterior or ventral roots?

Back 136

motor axons

Front 137

what type of cell bodies are found in the anterior gray horn?

Back 137

motor neurons to skeletal muscle

Front 138

what type of cell bodies are found in the lateral gray horns?

Back 138

motor neurons to cardiac and smooth muscle and glands

Front 139

can a single track in the spinal cord barry both motor and sensory fibers?

Back 139

no, they carry only one type

Front 140

impluses toward the brain

Back 140

ascending sensory tracts

Front 141

impluses from the brain

Back 141

descending motor tracts

Front 142

where is the central canal?

Back 142

center of the commissure

Front 143

pathways that conduct impluses for precise, voluntary movements of skeletal muscle

Back 143

direct or pyramidal pathways

Front 144

pathways that convey impluses that deal with automatic movements, sweat glands, and maintain skeletal muscle tom and psture

Back 144

indirect or extrapyramidal pathways

Front 145

neurons that lie between motor and sensory neurons in neural pathways and shuttle signals through CNS pathways where intergration occurs

Back 145

association neurons or interneurons

Front 146

route followed by a series of nerve impluses from origin to destination

Back 146

nerve pathway

Front 147

fast, predictable, automatic, subconscious responses to changes inside or outside the body

Back 147

reflex

Front 148

reflex that involve contraction of skeletal muscle

Back 148

somatic reflex

Front 149

reflex that involve responses of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands

Back 149

autonomic reflex

Front 150

what are the components of a reflex arc

Back 150

receptor, sensory neuron, and integrating center, motor neuron, effector

Front 151

distal end of a sensory neruon or associated structure

Back 151

receptor

Front 152

simplest type of pathway

Back 152

reflex arc

Front 153

intergration center: synapse of sensory neruon with motor neuron

Back 153

monosynaptic reflex arc

Front 154

intergreation center: one or more interneurons (association neuorns)

Back 154

polysynaptic reflex arc

Front 155

part of the body that responds

Back 155

effector

Front 156

what is the action of the effector?

Back 156

reflex

Front 157

how does a stetch reflex work?

Back 157

1. the stretch of tendon stimulates receptors called muscle spindles which monitor changes in the length of the muscle
2. impluses enter the cord through sensory neruons
3. sensory neurons synapses with motor neurons in anterior gray horn
4. if excitation is great enough, motor neuron send impluses out through ventral root to same muscle that activated the spindle and causes it to contract

Front 158

what type of reflex is a stretch reflex?

Back 158

monosynaptic

Front 159

nerves enter and leave the same side of the spinal cord

Back 159

ipsilateral reflex arc

Front 160

what type of reflex arc is a stretch reflex?

Back 160

ipsilateral

Front 161

what is an example of a flexor relfex?

Back 161

stepping on a tack

Front 162

how does a flexor reflex work?

Back 162

1. stepping on tack stimulates pain receptors
2. sensory neurons synapses with association neuron in spinal cord
3. association neuorn activated motor neurons in several spinal cord segments, which leave through anterior root and innervate several muscles , causing flexor muscle in the thigh to contract withdrawing foot from source of pain.

Front 163

what type of reflex is a flexor reflex?

Back 163

polysynaptic

Front 164

what type of reflex arc is a flexor reflex?

Back 164

ipsilateral

Front 165

when a reflex activates association neurons in several segments of the spinal cord it is called what?

Back 165

intersegmental reflex arc

Front 166

what type of reflex is a crossed extensor reflex?

Back 166

contralateral reflex arc

Front 167

how does a crossed extensor reflex work?

Back 167

1. stimulation of pain sensing neuron in right foot
2. sensory neuron sends impluses into spinal cord
3. in cord, neurons activates several association neurons that synapse with motor neurons on the left side of the spinal cord in several spinal segments.
4. association neurons activate motor neurons that cause the extensor muscle of the left leg to contract to support the body.

Front 168

what type of reflex arc is a crossed extensor reflex?

Back 168

reciprocal innervation

Front 169

what neural tube defects can be prevented if a pregnant woman gets enough of what vitamin?

Back 169

vitmain B (folic acid) can prevent spina bifida and anencephaly

Front 170

failure of laminae of spine to unite

Back 170

spina bifida

Front 171

absence of skull and cerebral hemispheres

Back 171

anencephaly

Front 172

what are the four pricipal parts of the brain?

Back 172

the brain stem, cerebellum, diencephalon, and cerebrum

Front 173

what are the three parts of the brain stem?

Back 173

medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain

Front 174

what are the three parts of the diencephalon?

Back 174

thalamus, hypothalmus, and pineal gland

Front 175

what is the largest section of the brain?

Back 175

cerebrum

Front 176

what is the gyrus and sulcus?

Back 176

gyrus = convolutions (bumps)
sulcus = grooves

Front 177

what is the lonitudinal fissure?

Back 177

divides the right and left halves (cerebral hemispheres)

Front 178

what is the lateral fissue?

Back 178

divides the temporal lobe from the frontal and parietal lobes

Front 179

waht is the central sulcus?

Back 179

divides the frontal and parietal lobes

Front 180

what is the transverse fissure?

Back 180

separates the cerebrum and cerebellum

Front 181

what are the three main paths for white matter fibers in the cerebrum?

Back 181

1. association fibers- between gyri in same hemisphere
2. commissural fibers- between corresponding gryi in opposite hemispheres
3. projection fibers- from ascending and descending tracts to and from brain and spinal cord

Front 182

what is the corpus callosum?

Back 182

largest commissure that lies superior to the lateral ventricles deep within the londitudinal fissure

Front 183

what are the four main lobes of the brain?

Back 183

frontal, temporal, pareital, and occipital

Front 184

controls voluntary action of specific muscle or groups of muscles on the poopsite side of the body. (cross over in the pyramids medulla or in the spinal cord)

Back 184

primary motor cortex

Front 185

where is the primary motor cortex?

Back 185

in the frontal lobe, infront of the central sulcus in the precentral gyrus

Front 186

receives impluses for touch, proprioception, pain, and temperature. certain parts of the gyrus reveice input from specific areas of the body.

Back 186

primary somatosensory cortex

Front 187

what is the primary somatosensory cortex primary function?

Back 187

to localize the points on the body where the sensation orginiates

Front 188

where is the primary somatosensory cortex located?

Back 188

behind the central sulcus in the postcentral gyrus

Front 189

neurons that receive both excitatory and inhibitory input from both the direct and indirect pathways.

Back 189

lower motor neurons

Front 190

called the final common pathway.

Back 190

lower motor neurons

Front 191

what is the results if there is damage to the lower motor neurons?

Back 191

flaccid paralysis

Front 192

what is the results if there is damage to the upper motor neurons?

Back 192

spastic paralysis

Front 193

what is spastic paralysis?

Back 193

increased muscle tone, exaggerated reflexes and pathological reflexes

Front 194

areas that are often adjacent to the primary areas and recieve input from the sensory areas and other areas of the brain.

Back 194

sensory association areas

Front 195

what hemisphere controls numerical and scientific skills and reasoning?

Back 195

left hemisphere

Front 196

what hemisphere controls the spoken and written language

Back 196

left hemisphere

Front 197

what hemisphere controls musical and artistic awareness, space and pattern perception, insight, imagination and spatial relationships?

Back 197

right hemisphere

Front 198

a region of the cortex defined based on its cytoarchitecture, or organization of cells.

Back 198

Brodmann areas

Front 199

temporary ability to recall a few pieces of information. average 7 + or - 2.

Back 199

short term memory

Front 200

memory that lasts for days to years.

Back 200

long term memory

Front 201

reinforcement due to frewuent retrieval is called what?

Back 201

memory consolidation

Front 202

what changes are involved in long term memory?

Back 202

anatomical and biochemical changes at synapses

Front 203

paired masses of gray matter in cerebral hemispheres

Back 203

basal ganglia

Front 204

interconnected by many fibers that receive input from and provide output to the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus.

Back 204

basal ganglia

Front 205

produce most of the inhibitory neurotransmitter dopamine and help to control automatic muscular movements and musle tone

Back 205

basal ganglia

Front 206

what happens when the neurontransmitter dopamine degenerate?

Back 206

parkinson's disease

Front 207

what happens if too much CNS is forms or not enough drains?

Back 207

develop hydrocephalus

in babies causes head to enlarge
in adults bc the skull is rigid and hard, it is likely to damage the brain

Front 208

what hormone does the pineal gland make?

Back 208

melatonin

Front 209

what does melatonin do?

Back 209

sleepinducing signal and antioxidant

Front 210

what does the infundibulum do?

Back 210

connects the pituitary gland to the base of the hypothalamus

Front 211

what is the relay station for the sense of smeel?

Back 211

mammillary bodies

Front 212

what is the principal relay station for sensory impulses to the cerbral cortex?

Back 212

thalamus

Front 213

what plays a role in emotions, memory, awareness and cognition?

Back 213

thalamus

Front 214

what does the hypothalamus control? (6)

Back 214

1. the autonomic nervous system
2. pituitary gland
3. regulates eating and drinking
4. controls body temp
5. regulation of diurnal rhythms and states of consciousness
6. regulation of emotional and behavioral patterns

Front 215

what part of the brain is called the "emotional brain"?

Back 215

limbic system

Front 216

why is the limbic system called the "emotional Brain"?

Back 216

governs the emotional aspects of behavior and aids in memory.

Front 217

reflex centers for moevements of eyes, head and neck in response to visual and other stimuli

Back 217

superior colliculi

Front 218

reflex centers for movement of head and trunk in response to sounds.

Back 218

inferior colloculi

Front 219

what are the two parts of the corpora quadrigemina?

Back 219

superior and inferior colloculi

Front 220

it connects the spinal cord with the brain and links parts of the brain with one another by way of tracts.

Back 220

pons

Front 221

several nuclei here that are the origins for cranial nerves

Back 221

pons

Front 222

what body function does the pons help control?

Back 222

breathing

Front 223

contain all the sensory and motor tracts that connect the brain and spinal cord.

Back 223

medulla oblongata

Front 224

most sensory and motor tracts cross over to the other side of the body ad they pass through the medull

Back 224

decussation of pyramids

Front 225

what regulatory centers do we find in the medulla oblangota?

Back 225

1. cardiac center (heart rate)
2. vasomotor center (constrict blood vessels)
3. respiratory center (rate and depth of breathing)

Front 226

net-like formation of white and gray matter that extends through a large portion of the brainstem.

Back 226

reticular formation

Front 227

contributes to regulating muscle tone and alerts the cerebral cortex to incoming sensory signals

Back 227

the reticular formation

Front 228

system that is responsible for maintaining consciousness and awakening from sleep.

Back 228

reticular activating system (RAS)

Front 229

what does the RAS responds to?

Back 229

signals from eyes, ears, and skin

Front 230

what is arbor vitae?

Back 230

white matter tracts

Front 231

what is folia?

Back 231

gray matter in a series of ridges that make up the cerebellar cortex

Front 232

connects the cerbellar hemispheres

Back 232

vermis

Front 233

"wormlike"

Back 233

vermis

Front 234

what is the main function of the cerebellum?

Back 234

compares the intended movement programmed by the cerebrum with what is actually happening, and corrects it to produce smooth, coordinated movements

Front 235

a dyskinetic disorder consisting of wide tremor during voluntary movements. The tremor worsens when a person is moving

Back 235

intention tremors

Front 236

what are the connective tissue coverings of the peripheral nerves?

Back 236

endoneurium, perineurium, and epineurium

Front 237

individual neurons are wrapped in _____.

Back 237

endoneurium

Front 238

groupd of neurons are arranged in bundles called fascicles by ____.

Back 238

perineurium

Front 239

the fascicles form a nerve which is covered by the ____.

Back 239

epineurium

Front 240

how many spinal nerves are there?

Back 240

31 pairs

Front 241

how many are cranial nerves?

Back 241

12 pairs

Front 242

how many pairs of cervical nerves, thoracic nerves, lumbar nerves, sacral nerves, coccygeal nerves are there?

Back 242

8 cervical nerves,
12 thoracic nerves,
5 lumbar nerves,
5 sacral nerves,
1 coccygeal nerves

Front 243

the area of skin that provides sensory input to one pair of spinal nerves or to cranial nerve V

Back 243

dermatome

Front 244

the system of motor neurons that innervates smooth and cardiac muscle and glands

Back 244

autonomic nervous system

Front 245

what are the two divisions of the ANS?

Back 245

sympathetic and parasympathetic

Front 246

originates in the throacolumbar segments of the spinal cord

Back 246

sympathetic

Front 247

symapses in ganglia near the spinal cord

Back 247

sympathetic

Front 248

synapses with neurons to several organs

Back 248

sympathetic

Front 249

effect is widespread

Back 249

sympathetic

Front 250

fight or flight

Back 250

sympathetic

Front 251

prgangloinic fibers release ACh and postganglionic fibers release norepinephrine

Back 251

sympathetic

Front 252

receptors are alpha 1, alpha 2, beta 1, and beta 2

Back 252

sympathetic

Front 253

originates in the cranial nerves and sacral segments of the cord

Back 253

parasympathetic

Front 254

synapses in ganglia near the visceral effector

Back 254

parasympathetic

Front 255

synapses with neurons to a single organ

Back 255

parasympathetic

Front 256

effect is local

Back 256

parasympathetic

Front 257

maintenace function: feed and breed

Back 257

parasympathetic

Front 258

preganglionic fibers release ACh and postganglionic fibers releace ACh

Back 258

parasympathetic

Front 259

receptors are nicotinic and muscarinic

Back 259

parasympathetic

Front 260

what are chlinergic fibers?

Back 260

preganglionic fibers in the sympathetic NS that release Ach

Front 261

what are adrenergic fibers?

Back 261

postganglionic fibers in the sympathetic NS that release NE

Front 262

what is cranial nerve 1,2,3? and what is their function?

Back 262

1. olfactory - sensory nerve functions in sense of smell
2. optic nerve - arises from the retina of the eye and functions in vision
3. oculomotor - motor function of the eye, eyelid, and pupillary constriction

Front 263

what is cranial nerve 4, 5, 6? and what is their function?

Back 263

4. trochlear - moves the superior oblique musle of eye that passe through a ring of tissue called trochlea
5. trigeminal - three branches motor: chewing; sensory skin of face
6. abducens - lateral rectus eye muscle abducts the eye

Front 264

what is cranial nerves 7, 8, 9? and what is their function?

Back 264

7. facial nerve - motor: to muscle of facial expression and secretion of saliva and tears; sensory: taste and propriception
8. vestibulococholear - sensory: hearing and equilibrium
9. glossopharyngeal - motor: secretion of saliva; sensoy: taste, regulation of blood pressure and proprioceptions of muscles involved in swallowing

Front 265

what is cranial nerve 10, 11, 12? and what is their functions?

Back 265

10. vagus - the wanderer motor: smooth muscle contraction and relaxation, secretion of digestive fluids; heart, lungs- parasympathetic innervation, sensory: from visceral organs
11. accessory nerve - motor: swallowing and movements of head, sensory: proprioception
12. hypoglossal - motor: movement of tongue during speech and swallowing, sensory: proprioception

Front 266

the blood vessels that supply the brain, the vertebral arteries, and the internal carotid arteries form branches and link at the base of the brain in a structure called ___.

Back 266

the circle of willis

Front 267

the blood supply to the brain has many alternate pathways, this means that if a blood clot blocks the flow of blood through one pathway, that area of the brain can still be supplied through an alternate vessel.

Back 267

the circle of willis

Front 268

the number of transmitter molecules released by any one exocytosed vesicle

Back 268

quantum

Front 269

the total number of quanta released when the synapse is activated

Back 269

quantum content

Front 270

neurotransmitters bind with receptors in the ____ neuron

Back 270

psotsynaptic

Front 271

what are the two types of receptors on the postsynaptic neuron?

Back 271

part of an ion channel or coupled to an ion channel by G-protein and second messenger

Front 272

how does the receptors on the postsynaptic neuron associated with a specific G protein work?

Back 272

1. transmitter binds to its receptor
2. producing a second messenger that alters intracellular functions over a loner time than for direct channel opening.

Front 273

How does a receptor on the postsynaptic neuron that is part of an ion channel work?

Back 273

1. transmitter binds to receptor
2. membrane conductance changes occur
3. leads to depolarization or hyperolarization

Front 274

which is more likely to bring an axon to threshold: axodendritic synapses or axosomatic synapses? why?

Back 274

axosomatic synapses
bc of their proximal location greater effect in altering the membrane potential at axon hillock

Front 275

what is the most common method of removal of a neurotransmitter from the synaptic cleft?

Back 275

high-affinity reuptake

Front 276

how does high-affinity reuptake work?

Back 276

carrier mediated, sodium dependent, secondary active transport that uses energy from the Na/K - ATPase pump

Front 277

what are some other removal mechanisms of a neurotransmitter from the synaptic cleft other than reuptake?

Back 277

1. enzymatic degration into a nonactive metabolite in synapses
2. diffusion away from the synapse into the extracellular space

Front 278

how can M1 and M2 receptors be excitatory in one location and inhibitory in another?

Back 278

M1 ans M2 receptors are composed of seven membrane-spanning domains. M1 activation results in a decrease in K conductance and activation of M2 results in increase in K

Front 279

how is dopamine formed?

Back 279

aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase catalyzes L-DOPA to dopamine found in cytoplasm

Front 280

how is norepinephrine formed?

Back 280

dopamine B-hydroxylase (DBH) coverts dopamine to norepinephrine found in vesicles

Front 281

how is epineprhrine formed?

Back 281

Phenylethanolamine N-methyl transferase (PNMT) adds a methyl group to the amine in NE to for EPI

Front 282

what two enzymes are involved in breaking down catecholamines?

Back 282

Monoamine oxidase (MAO) and catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT)

Front 283

why do peptide neurotransmitters have a longer effect than other neurotransmitters?

Back 283

no mechanisms for the recycling of peptide transmitters at the axon terminal

Front 284

why are peptide neurotransmitters more readily depleted?

Back 284

bc there are no mechanism for the recycling of them so the are contain within the axon terminals where they can exhaust their supply

Front 285

how does the central pattern generator of the spinal cord help to explain the "dance with madame guillotine"?

Back 285

the central pattern generator can produce the alternating contraction of limb flexors and extensors that is needed for walking

Front 286

lesions of the cerebellum produce impairment in the coordinated action of agonists, antagonists, and synergists. can cause coarse jerking motions

Back 286

ataxia

Front 287

the jerking type of motion caused by ataxia

Back 287

action tremor

Front 288

cerebellar lesions can produce a reduction in muscle tone

Back 288

hypotonia

Front 289

coordinates autonomic reflexes of the brainstem and spinal cord. also activated the endocrine and somatic motor systems

Back 289

hypothalamus

Front 290

what is leptin?

Back 290

hormone that helps the regulation of body weight

Front 291

the peaks and valley sof activity in most homesostatically regulated functions the recur approximately daily

Back 291

circadian rhythms

Front 292

what body respons follow the circadian rhythms?

Back 292

alertness

Front 293

a rhythm ranging form 8 to 13 Hz boserved when the person is awake but relaxed with the eyes closed

Back 293

alpha waves

Front 294

when the eyes are open, the addes visual input to the cortex imparts a faster rhythm to the EEG ranging from 13 to 30 Hz

Back 294

beta waves

Front 295

the slowest waves recored occur during sleep at 4 to 7 Hz

Back 295

theta waves

Front 296

waves recored during the deepest sleep at 05 to 4 Hz

Back 296

delta waves

Front 297

what happens to brain waves during sleep?

Back 297

varies in a cyclic fashion that repeats approximately every 90 minutes

Front 298

what happens to body muscles during sleep?

Back 298

temporarily paralyzed

Front 299

what is another name for lateral fissure?

Back 299

sylvian fissure

Front 300

what is another name for the central sulcus?

Back 300

fissure of Rolando

Front 301

what can happen if the limbic system malfunctions?

Back 301

bipolar disorder, major depression, schizophrenia, and dementia

Front 302

what are MAOI's used for and how do they work?

Back 302

they are used to treat depression and anxiety
they inhibit reuptake

Front 303

where is the site of "working memory"?

Back 303

prefrontal cortex

Front 304

what happens to information after it has been processed in the working memory?

Back 304

processes then transmitted to the hippocampus wher is is consolidated over several hours into a more permanent form

Front 305

memory of events and facts and the ability to consciously access them

Back 305

declarative memory

Front 306

type of memory that involves the ability to learn and remember new skills and procedures

Back 306

procedural memory

Front 307

what are the three functions of the autonomic nervous system?

Back 307

1. maintaining homeostatic conditions within the body
2. coordinating the body;s responses to exercise and stress
3. assisting the endocrine system to regulate reproduction

Front 308

how does the somatic nervous system innervate a target structure?

Back 308

neurotransmitter is released from specialized nerve endings that make intimate contact with the target structure

Front 309

how does the autonomic nervous system innervate a traget structure?

Back 309

transmitters are released into the extracellur space surrounding the effector cells. this response origniates in some of the effector cells and then propagates to the remainder by gap junctions

Front 310

why is the adrenal medulla sometimes considered to be part of the sympathetic nervous system?

Back 310

because the adrenal medulla contain chromaffin cells that synthesize both epinephrine and norepinephrine. the circulating epinephrine mimics the actions of sympathertic nerve stimulation.

Front 311

in the 3rd and 4th ventricles and hypothalamus are _____ where capillaries are leaky, allowing the brain to sample the blood.

Back 311

circumventricular organs (CVO's)