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228 Cards in this Set
- Front
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Levels of Analysis
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Neural
Genetic Evolutionary Learning Cognitive Social Cultural Developmental |
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Descriptive v. Inferential Statistics
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Descriptive: summarize sets of data
Inferential: help researchers decide how confident they can be in judging that results are not due to chance |
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Anesthetic of Familiarity
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Our own mental processes work so well that we are unaware of them
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Arthur C. Clarke
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"Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic."
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First law of Artificial Intelligence
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"The hard problems are easy, and the easy problems are hard"
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Hard Problems (AI)
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mathematical calculation, databases
chess picking stocks diagnosing diseases |
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Easy Problems (AI)
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Seeing
Moving Common Sense Language Attraction Agression |
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Illuminance
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How bright the light is
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Reflectance
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How much light the surface reflects back
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Lightness constancy
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People v. Cameras
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Color constancy
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Color of surface v. Color of illumination.
People solve better than cameras. |
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Size constancy
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The relationship between retinal size, perceived size, and perceived depth.
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Shape-recognition problem.
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Think Cut-outs.
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Common sense
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Basic concepts of object, person, time, and space.
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The same consonant making different sounds is what kind of problem?
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Hard problem.
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Parsing
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Making out meaning from a sequence of words.
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Radical themes of "Conventional Wisdom"
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Unconscious mind
Irrationality Sexuality Repression Hidden conflict Importance of childhood |
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Freud's Hydraulic Model
(psychic energy) |
Libido = oomph
(not necessarily sexual) |
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Freud's Structural Theory
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Superego
Ego Id |
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Id ("it")
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Pleasure principle: Gratification of desire
Primary process thinking Dreams "Freudian Slips" Free association Symbolization & Displacement Psychosis |
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Primary Process thinking
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unconscious mental activity; marked by unorganized, non-logical thinking and by the tendency to seek immediate discharge and gratification of instinctual urges
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Ego
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Reality Principle.
Delay of Gratification. Secondary process thinking. Uses libido to control Id: (Repression and censorship) |
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Superego
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Conscience
Identification w/ parents and internalization of their rules before they are understood Anxiety |
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Freud's Topographic Theory
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Conscious mind
Preconscious mind (standby) Unconscious mind |
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Topographic v. Structural theory
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Ego + part of Superego = conscious
Part of Ego, Most of superego, All of Id = unconscious |
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Freud's Developmental Theory
(Pychosexual Stages) #1 |
1. Oral Stage (Birth to 12 months)
Breastfeeding: automatic gratification of desire Oral fixation, regression |
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Freud's Developmental Theory
(Pychosexual Stages) #2 |
Toilet training.
Too tough: "Anal retentive" Too easy: "Anal expulsive" |
1. Oral Stage
2. Anal Stage |
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Freud's Developmental Theory
(Pychosexual Stages) #3 |
Notice boys/girls different.
Boys: Oedipal feelings. (+M,-D) Castration anxiety. If unresolved: homo/asexuality Girls: Electra complex (inverse Oedipus) Penis envy. If unresolved: Flirts with, dominates older men. |
1. Oral Stage
2. Anal Stage 3. Phallic Stage (3-4) |
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Freud's Developmental Theory
(Pychosexual Stages) #4 |
Hidden. No overt sexual desires.
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1. Oral Stage
2. Anal Stage 3. Phallic Stage (3-4) 4. Latency Stage |
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Freud's Developmental Theory
(Pychosexual Stages) #5 |
Generative stage = maturity
Not always reached. Productivity; artistic, scientific creativity |
1. Oral Stage
2. Anal Stage 3. Phallic Stage (3-4) 4. Latency Stage 5. Genital Stage |
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Neurosis
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Anxiety from superego (conscience) & ego (practicality) repressing id.
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Defense mechanisms of the Ego. (8)
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Denial
Repression (don't deny, don't think about either) Reaction formation (protesting too much) Projection (accuse someone else) Rationalization (for own good) Displacement Sublimation (dentistry, law, painting) Intellectualization (reasoning used to block unconscious conflict) |
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Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy
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Free association
Dreams "Talking Cure" Transference |
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Is clinical experience enough?
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No.
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Components of Behaviorist Approach
(Stimulus-Response, Skinnerian) |
1. Environmentalist & Learning
2. Behaviorism 3. Stimulus-Response Theory |
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John B. Watson
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Founder of behaviorism
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What is taboo/ok in behaviorism?
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Taboo: beliefs, desires, wishes, memories, images, emotions, ideas, feelings, perceptions, expectations
Ok: stimuli, responses, reinforcers (rewards) |
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Mechanisms of learning/conditioning
(Stimulus-Response Theory) |
Classical conditioning (involuntary, Pavlov)
Operant conditioning (voluntary, Thorndike) |
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Cumulative record
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Cumulative responses plotted over time
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Stimulus generalization
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what animal does
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Stimulus discrimination
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what experimenter trains animal to do
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Equipotentiality
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"Laws of Learning" apply to all stimuli, all responses, all reinforcers, all organisms
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Behaviorism + Common Sense
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Behaviorists thought common-sense ideas about beliefs and desires were bogus
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Chomsky
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Innate basis for human language
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John Garcia
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Preparedness (belongingness)
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Folk Psychology
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Indispensability of the mental causes of behavior (beliefs and desires)
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Skinner
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Denied the existence of beliefs and desires
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Freud
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Presented too many beliefs and desires, too implausible, hard to demonstrate
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Cartesian Dualism
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2 kinds of stuff in universe:
Matter and Minds Animals & Human bodies = machines Mind = "the soul" = something else |
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Problems with notion of soul
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1. How does it interact with matter
2. Why so tightly tied to physicality of brain |
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Beliefs v. Information v. Desire
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Beliefs: information representations in the brain
Thinking: transformations of one representation into another Desire: feedback loops (thermostat) |
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Desires: feedback loops
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represent goal state (what you set)
represent current state (what it is) execute operation that reduces the difference |
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Hard problem of consciousness
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Would a humanly complex computer feel?
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Niko Tinbergen (ethology)
Noam Chomsky (linguistics) David Marr (artificial intelligence) |
complete explanation of a psychological process must include multiple layers of analysis
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Hardware of the brain
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Neurobiology
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Software of the brain
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Information-processing
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Design of the brain
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Evolutionary function
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History of the brain
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Phylogenetic origin
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Development of the brain
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Ontogenetic origin
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Aphasia is a ________ syndrome,
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Neuropsychological
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Dichoptic v. Dichotic
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Dichoptic: Two visual fields
Dichotic: Two ears [forms of presentation] |
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Optic chiasma
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Where optic nerves cross.
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Epillepsy
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Problem: Positive feedback loop
Solution: Sever Corpus Collosum |
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fMRI
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Water molecules in brain serve as radio transmitters.
Magnet + Radio waves. |
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Sulcus
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Depression or fissure in the surface of the brain
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Posner
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Letter-matching experiment.
Name or physical. AA Aa |
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Homologous
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Similar due to common ancestry
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Analogous
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Similar due to function
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Evolution v. Natural Selection
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Evolution: "descent with modifcation"
Natural selection: Darwin's theory of how complex design can arise through evolution |
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Lamarckism
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Non-selection evolution (FAIL)
use/disuse inheritance of acquired characteristics |
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Components of Natural Selection (5)
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1. Replication
2. Competition for resources 3. Copying errors (mutations) 4. Differential replication 5. Appearance of design |
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Evidence for the evolution of human brain & behavior
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1. Fossil record
2. Development (grasping reflex) 3. Biogeography 4. Homologies 5. Vestigial behavior characters (goose bumps, anger expression) |
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Orthogenesis
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Evolution in a particular direction (misconception)
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Proximate Causation
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How the brain causes behavior in real time; organism's beliefs and desires
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Ultimate Causation
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How evolution selected the brain to want some things but not others; genes' metaphorical "desires"
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Adaptations
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Products of natural selection
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Spandrels
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By-products of natural selection (i.e. redness of blood)
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Random features
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Product of genetic drift
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John Locke
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"The Blank Slate" (Tabula rasa)
"There is nothing in the intellect that was not first in the sense." |
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Leibniz
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There is nothing in the intellect that was not first in the senses, "Except the intellect itself."
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Plasticity Rule
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Neurons that fire together, wire together
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"Doogie" mice
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Injected with receptor involved in learning and memory
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Variance
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measure of variability in a group
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Heritability
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Heritability =
Variation Due to Genetic Differences/Total Variation in the Group |
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Naturalistic v. Moralistic Fallacy
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Natruralist: "Is implies ought"
(Descriptive therefore normative) Moralisic: "Ought implies is" (Normative therefore descriptive) |
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Equity feminism
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Women (and men) should be judged as individuals, not discriminated against because of traits (real or imagined) of their group
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Gender feminism
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"Society transforms bi-sexual infants into male and female gender personalities, the one destined to command, the other to obey"
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fMRI
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blood flow
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sMRI
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"fancy X-ray"
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Neuron
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single brain cell
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Dendrites
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Input-end of neuron
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Axon
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One, long output piece of neuron
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Myelin
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Fatty-like substance
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Interneurons
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Transmits impulses between other neurons
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2 Branches of Nervous System
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Central (brain and spinal cord)
Peripheral |
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2 Branches of Peripheral Nervous System
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Skeletal (voluntary)
Autonomic (self-regulating) |
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2 Branches of Autonomic (Peripheral Nervous System)
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Sympathetic (arousing)
Parasympathetic (calming) |
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Medulla
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Body at constant temp.
Breathing Heart-beating |
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Pons
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Rapid motor coordination
(Source of info. to and from Cerebellum) |
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Gyrus
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A ridge or fold between two clefts on the cerebral surface of the brain.
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Gray Matter
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masses of the cell bodies and dendrites — each covered with synapses (unmyelinated).
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White Matter
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bundles of axons (nuclei, different sense of nuclei) each coated with a sheath of myelin.
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Frenology
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Strict localization via bumps on skull (FAIL)
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Karl Lashley
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Search where memory is stored;
Mass-action interpretation (FAIL) |
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Sagital sections
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Cross-sections of the brain achieved by imaging
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primary motor strip
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doing (frontal lobe)
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somatosensory strip
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feeling (further back than primary motor strip)
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Prosopagnosia
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Inability to recognize faces
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Agnosia
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damage to ventral or "what system"
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Neglect
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damage to dorsal or "where system"
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Fusiform Face Area (FFA)
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Used for face detection
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Parahippocampal Place Area
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Used for scene detection
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Frontal Lobes
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Short-term memory
Decision-making and control Social intelligence |
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Phineas Gage
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Damage to medial prefrontal cortex
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Serotonin
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Positive emotion neurotransmitter
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Excitatory axon terminals
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Connect to dendrites
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Inhibitory axon terminals
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Connect to cell body
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Feature Detectors
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Neurons that respond to patterns in the perceptual input
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Hubel & Wiesel "Simple Cells" Feedforward Visual Cortex model
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Cells passive filters corresponding to spatial stimulus field.
LGN cells: lateral geniculate nucleus cells |
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Local v. Distributed Representations
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Local: 1:1
Distributed: represented by patterns of activity across feature units; no concept has own unit |
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3 Features of Wiring in Real Neural Networks that Explain Aspects of Conscious Perception
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1. lateral inhibition
2. opponent-processes 3. habituation |
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Lateral Inhibition
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Turn on your own output; turn down your neighbor's output
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Mach Bands
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Dark/Light strips that when displayed side-by-side demonstrate lateral inhibition
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Hering grid
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City-planning black squares, white streets; lateral inhibition
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Habituation
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Neurons that fire a lot over a long period of time slow down in their firing
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Depth Cues
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Shading
Texture Gradient Linear Perspective Interposition |
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Convergence reflex's other name?
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Rangefinder reflex
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Free fusion
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Magic image (you do the work, i.e. for an autostereogram)
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Wheatstone Stereoscope
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Uses mirrors
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Correspondence Problem
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Eyes might see two close objects or one common far away...
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Probable reason for cyclopean vision?
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To penetrate camouflage.
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Hard problem of consciousness
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raw feels
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solipsism
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belief that the self is all that can truly be known to exist
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weird = weird fallacy
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Consciousness is weird.
Quantum physics is weird. Therefore, quantum physics explains consciousness. |
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Recency Effect
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Remember most recent
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Primacy Effect
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Remember first few items
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Consolidated memories
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In networks that connect regions of the cortex directly without depending on the hippocampus
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Procedural Memory
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Motor skills, habits, tacit rules.
(Basal ganglia, Cerebellum) NOT HIPPOCAMPUS |
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Explicit memory
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Declarative, conscious
2 categories: Episodic/Semantic (Hippocampus) |
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Implicit memory
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nondeclarative, unconscious
(Basal ganglia, Cerebellum) |
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Amygdala
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emotional (e.g. classical conditioning of fear)
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Phonological loop
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memory for words or digits can be disrupted by the repetition of a syllable
(holding words in memory activates speech area (Broca's)) |
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George Miller
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7 +/- 2
Really closer to 4 +/- 2 [chunks] |
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Treisman
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Feature Integration
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Parallel v. Serial
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Parallel can process many single-features at once.
Serial to render conjunctions. |
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Scotomas
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Visual blindspots
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Automatic v. Controlled Processing
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Think Stroop Test
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Brain Oscillations during Consciousness
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Thalamus and Cortex
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Crick & Koch
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Blackboard Theory of Consciousness
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Waves during sleep
Delta Theta Alpha Beta/Gamma |
Delta - deep sleep
Theta - Drowsiness and sleep Alpha - relaxation Beta & gamma - alertness |
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Wittgenstein
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Critique of classical categories
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Deductive v. Inductive Reasoning
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Deductive
Inductive |
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Confirmation bias
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People design experiments/turn to activities that confirm rather than potentially disprove, their hypothesis
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Bayes' Theorem
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p(H|D) = p(H) p(D|H) / p(D)
-- p (D|H) = rate data given hypothesis p (H|D) = rate hypothesis given data p(H) [what's missing when one engages in base rate neglect] |
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Base-rate Neglect
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Forgets rate of hypothesis, p(H), when making considerations that should use Bayes' theorem
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Conjunction fallacy
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A
A+B We say the rate of A+B is more likely to be true b/c the context provided by the items A + B distorts our thought |
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Frequentist probability
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What proportion of events in a given outcome in the long run?
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Subjectivist probability
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How confident are you in the outcome of a single event?
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hypercorrection
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Obama...
He waited for my wife and I. (should be me) |
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Whorf-sapir hypothesis
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linguistic relativity hypothesis
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Recursion
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ability to embed a phrase inside a phrase of the same type
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Source-filter model
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larynx: buzzy, sound source
pharynx (throat): mouth, lips, nose: changeable resonators (vowels) lips, tongue, soft palate: noisy constriction of vocal tracts (consonants) |
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Pragmatics
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How people understand language in context, using their knowledge of the world and their expectations about how speakers communicate
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Cooperative Principle
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Assumption that the speaker is trying to convey information truthfully and clearly.
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ultimate explanations
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functional explanations at the evolutionary level
(state role behavior plays in survival/reproduction) |
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proximate explanations
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mechanism explanations
(statements of the the immediate conditions both inside and outside the animal that bring on the behavior) stimuli/psychological mechanism |
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deterministic fallacy
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assumption that genetic influences on our behavior take the form of genetic control of our behavior which we can do nothing about (short of modifying our genes)
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heritability coefficient
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proportion of the variance of a trait in a given population that derives from genetic variation
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Peripheral nervous system
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Nerves
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Action potentials
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All-or-none impulses fired off by neurons to exert influence on other neurons and muscle cells
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Synapse
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The junction between each axon terminal and the cell body or dendrite of the receiving neuron; (1) fast or (2) slow
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Synaptic cleft
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Very narrow gap that separates axon terminal from the cell membrane it influences
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Pre-synaptic membrane
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membrane of the axon terminal that abuts the cleft
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Vesicles
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tiny globlike containers of several thousand molecules of a chemical neurotransmitter
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Glutamine
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amino acid; transmitter @ most excitatory fast synapses
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GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
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amino acid; transmitter @ most inhibitory synapses
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Neuromodulators
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transmitters that alter the cell in long-lasting ways (by modulating the post-synaptic neuron's response to other transmitters)
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Nucleus
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Gray matter. A cluster of cell bodies in the central nervous system.
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Tract
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White matter. A bundle of axons that course together from one nucleus to another [A tract in the central nervous system is comparable to a nerve in the peripheral nervous system]
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Biogenic amines
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sleep, arousal, motivation, emotion
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Neuropeptides
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relatively large molecules consisting of chains of amino acids (slow-acting transmitter)
ex. endorphines |
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Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
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Magnetic field used to induce an electrical current non-invasively
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event-related potential
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a brief change that an EEG records immediately following the stimulus
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PET scan
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Injects radioactive substance into the blood
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stereotaxic instrument
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used to aid in the surgical insertion of a wire electrode into an animal's brain
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cannula
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a tiny tube inserted into an animal's brain to chemically produce a lesion
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Rarefaction v. Compression
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Opposites.
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Gestalt Principles of Grouping
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Proximity
Similarity Closure Good Continuation Common Movement Good form |
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Stereopsis
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The ability to see depth from binocular disparity
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Helmholtz
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Trichromatic theory of color vision
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Tonotopic mapping
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organization where each neuron is maximally responsive to sounds of a particular frequency
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Auditory masking
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ability of one sound to prevent the hearing of another
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Capgres syndrome
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Looks like but doesn't feel like
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Cerebellum
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the "little brain."
Receives information from the balance system of the inner ear, sensory nerves, and the auditory and visual systems. It is involved in the coordination of motor movements as well as basic facets of memory and learning. |
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Cerebral cortex:
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Outermost portion of brain that we see
Cerebral cortex: Outermost portion that we see Gyrus: bump Sulcus: groove |
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Medulla
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Heart rate, breathing, blood pressure.
The reticular formation is a neural network located in the medulla that helps control functions such as sleep and attention. |
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Pons
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Helps coordinate movement
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Midbrain
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Relay station for audio and visual information.
The midbrain controls many important functions such as the visual and auditory systems as well as eye movement. |
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Thalamus
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Processes and relays movement and sensory information
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Hypothalamus
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Controlling hunger, thirst, emotions, body temperature regulation, and circadian rhythms. The hypothalamus also controls the pituitary gland by secreting hormones, which gives the hypothalamus a great deal of control over many body functions.
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Limbic System
(Amygdala, hippocampus, regions of limbic cortex, and the septal area) |
The limbic system is comprised of four main structures: the amygdala, the hippocampus, regions of the limbic cortex and the septal area. These structures form connections between the limbic system and the hypothalamus, thalamus, and cerebral cortex. The hippocampus is important in short-term memory and learning, while the limbic system itself is central in the control of emotional responses.
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Basal Ganglia
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The basal ganglia are a group of large nuclei that partially surround the thalamus. These nuclei are important in the control of movement.
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Biederman
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Geons
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habituation
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phenomenon in which babies will first look intently at a pattern and then look at it less and less
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examining
(5-6 months) |
when babies hold an object in front of their eyes, turn it from side to side, pass it from one hand to the other, rub it, squeeze it, and in various other ways act as if they are deliberately testing its properties
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joint visual attention
(latter half of first year) |
baby looks at adult's eyes and directs his/her own eyes to what the adult is looking at
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social referencing
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to look @ caregivers' emotional expressions for clues about the possible danger of their own actions
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object permanence
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the principle that objects continue to exist when out of view
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Piaget's Theory
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Child's actions on the world = driving force for cognitive development
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Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
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Child's interactions with other people = driving force for cognitive development
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Schemes
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Mental Representations that are blueprints for actions
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Assimilation
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Process by which new experiences are incorporated into existing schemes
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Accommodation
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The expansion or change of existing schemes to accommodate the new object or event
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4 Stages of Development
(1) Sensorimotor Stage (Birth - 2 Yrs.) |
*Foundation for thinking about objects that are present but not for thinking about objects that are absent.
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4 Stages of Development
(2) Preoperational Stage (2-7 Yrs.) |
*Child can think beyond the here and now.
*Ability to symbolize objects (do not enable child to think about reversible consequences) |
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4 Stages of Development
(3) Concrete-operational Stage (7-12 Yrs.) |
*Permit child to think about reversible consequences of actions
(Basis for conservation of substance, cause-and-effect) *Concrete - tied closely to actual experiences in the world |
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4 Stages of Development
(4) Formal-operational Stage (Onset adolescence through adulthood) |
*Similar operations can be performed on different entities
*Represent principles that apply to a wide variety of situations *Allows theoretical thinking |
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Flaws with Piaget's Theory
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*Overestimates differences in ways of thinking
*Vague about change process *Underestimates role of social environment |
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Information-processing Perspective
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Mind as a set of interacting components
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Domain-specific development
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Development limited to one class of problems
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6 Basic Emotional Expressions
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1. Surprise
2. Fear 3. Disgust 4. Anger 5. Happiness 6. Sadness |
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What part of brain assesses significance of stimuli to generate appropriate bodily reactions?
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Amgydala (limbic system)
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Negative emotions generated where?
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Right prefrontal cortex
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Positive emotions generated where?
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Left prefrontal cortex.
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What are the "Four F's" ?
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1. Feeding
2. Fighting 3. Fleeing 4. Sexual Behavior |
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What part of the brain do we associate with the "Four F's"?
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Basal ganglia
(Reptilian Brain) |
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What part of the brain do we associate with the kinder, gentler, social emotions?
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Limbic System (Primitive Mammalian Brain)
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What part of the brain do we associate with intellect?
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Neocortex (Modern Mammalian Brain)
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