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64 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Research
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The application of a specific set of techniques based on what is often called "The Scientific Method"
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Social Scientific Research Steps
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-Thorough review of what is know (lit review)
-A clear statement of the problem/sub problems -Hypothesis: Making of predictions about what is expected to be observed -After research, the observations and its relationship to the problem and the hypothesis described. -Researcher interprets observations, in light of original idea |
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Three common variables
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-Independent:manipulated
-Dependent: affected as result of manipulation on IV -Control: possible confounds that researcher tries to hold constant |
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Purpose Statement
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Go find an old one from Dr. Bower
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Hypothesis
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Null: There will be no significant difference between .............. and ....... in .......
Alternative: There is a significant difference |
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4 Types of Sampling
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-Simple Random Sampling
-Stratified Random Sampling -Cluster Sample -Systematic Random Sample |
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Simple Random Sampling
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-each item/subject in sample has equal, independent chance of being selected into the sample
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Stratified Random Sampling
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-Items/subjects divided into parts (grade, age, gender, etc), in each part, each item/subject has an equal chance of being selected into the sample
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Cluster Sample
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-Parts that go together are researched/studied together (class, town, etc.)
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Systematic Random Sample
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-A systematic rule of selection/predictable interval is employed (every odd number, every 4th, etc.)
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Terms- Population
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Contains all subjects having a common characteristic
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Terms- Sample
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Subset of a population, the subjects that are available to the researcher
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Terms- Random Selection
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Process of obtaining a sample from a defined population, where everyone has an equal chance of being selected
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Terms- Random Assignment
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After selection, when researcher divides the subjects into treatment groups
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Threats to Internal validity
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-History: Long study- events can be extraneous variables
-Maturation: subjects mature -Testing: Pre-post test issues -Statistical Regression: Regression to the mean -Subject Attrition: Drop out's |
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Treats to External Validity
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-Multiple-Treatment Interference: administering more than one treatment to same subjects
-Hawthorn (placebo) Effect -Novelty Effect -Experimenter/Rosenthal Effect: Researcher's behavior/appearance effects the subject -Halo Effect: researcher bias |
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Experimental Research
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-Researcher must be able to control/manipulate independent variables
-Subjects must be randomly assigned |
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Solomon Four Group Design
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Design
4 randomly assigned/selected groups -Two of them are experimental -Two of them are control -First two get a pre and post test, and one of those gets intervention -Second two get only post-test, and one of those gets intervention |
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Quasi-Experimental research
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-Only the first of the two criteria listed is met (usually not random assignment)
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Correlational Researcher
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Looks at relationships among variables
Results conveyed as correlation coefficients (not cause and effect) |
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Descriptive Research
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Non-experimental
The researcher only describes what already exists, studying the results of something that has happened already |
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Action Research
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Developing new skills/approaches with direct applications for counseling or education
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Outcome research
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what happens to a client as a result of counseling
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Process research
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Looks at nature of counseling interview, determines what factors lead to successful outcomes
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AB Design
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Simple
single subject design baseline(A) and intervention (B) |
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ABAB design
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More Complex
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Sociogram
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technique for studying interaction patterns among peers
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Measurement Scales
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Nominal: category
Ordinal: Ordered category Interval: Category with orders based on equal intervals Ratio: Has a true zero (lb, in, cents) |
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Descriptive Statistics
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Stigmatization of the data
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Types of derived scores
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-Grade Equivalent (GE)
-Percentile Rank -Standard Scores |
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-Grade Equivalent (GE)
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average raw score is given a grade-level value. Cannot tell if a child is actually preforming at a different grade level however
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-Percentile Rank
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Indicates the percentages of scores that fall at or below a given score
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-Standard Scores
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z- score
T-score Stanines |
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z- score
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Most basic, allows scores from different tests to be compared
-Mean = 0 -sd= 1 |
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T-score
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Widely used
-Mean = 50 -sd = 10 |
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Stanines
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Standard nine
divides the bell curve into nine (not equal) parts |
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Types of statistics in tables
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Frequency (f)
Proportion (p) Percentage (%) |
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Frequency (f)
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The number of subjects in a category
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Proportion (p)
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-ratio of a subgroup to the total group
-expressed as 0.0 to 1.0 |
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Percentage (%)
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-the proportion or a subgroup to the total group
-expressed 0% to 100% |
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Graphs
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Bar graph/histogram
Frequency polygon |
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Measures of Central Tendency
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describing a set of data with a single number (usually the mean)
Mean Median Mode |
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Mean
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Arithmetic average of the scores
-Add if the scores and divide the sum by the number of scores |
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Median
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The point in a distribution above and below which 50% of the scores fall (the middle)
-put the numbers in order, and find the middle number (if no one middle number, add the two numbers and divide by 2) |
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Mode
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Seeing which score occurs most frequently
Bimodel or multi-modal if there is more than one |
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Measures of Variability
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Range (R)
Standard Deviation (sd) Variance |
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Range
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the difference between the highest and the lowest score in the distribution
-subtract the lowest from the highest |
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Variance
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If you have the sd, just square it
-Get the mean -subtract the mean from each of the numbers -square the numbers (so they are positive) -sum the squares -Divide that number by how many there are |
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Standard Deviation
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The square root of the variance (positive)
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Measures of relationship
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The degree of relationship between two variables
-Expressed as a correlation coefficient +1.0 is perfect positive -1.0 is perfect negative 0 means no relation |
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Pearsons product moment correlation
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pearsons r
correlations used for interval or ratio measures |
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Spearman rho
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for ordinal data
correlations |
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Skewed distributions
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negative
positive |
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Negative Skew
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pulled in the low direction
tail on left mean is smaller than median |
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Positive Skew
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pulled toward the positive side
tail on right mean on positive side |
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Amount of Skew
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Mean - median = skew
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what type of distribution do the following numbers represent
11,41,23,10,2,30,7,18,4,12 |
positively skewed
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Inferential Statistics
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Used to make inferences about larger populations
Generalizing from samples to poplations |
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Level of significance
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- .01 (.99 level of confidence) or
.05 (.95 level of confidence) -Says "There is only a 5 or fewer chance in 100 that this study result could be due to error" |
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Types of error
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-Type 1: null rejected when when no difference exists
-Type 2: The null is retained when a difference does exist (not as bad, better safe then sorry) |
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Most common types of inferential statistics
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Chi square
T-test ANOVA MANOVA ANCOVA |
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Chi square
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-normal data
-compares observed frequencies with expected frequencies -Can be sued with study that has only one group of subjects |
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T-test
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determines whether there is statistical sig between means from two different groups
-interval and ratio date |
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ANOVA (and types)
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Analysis of variance:like multiple t-tests, with three + groups
MANOVA: correlation between multiple iv's and a dv ANCOVA: how a covariate interacts with the dv |
