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87 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Science
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the process of discovering facts/truths about the world around us
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Theory
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a set of related ideas that have the potential of explaining or predicting phenomena in an orderly fashion and that are based on data
o Result of the accumulation of facts over time o Theorist develops a structural map in an effort to promote understanding and to facilitate the ability to predict outcomes under specific conditions o Theories changed over an extended time b/c theories are supported or refuted o Theory leads to hypotheses which are testable through research |
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models
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Pictorial diagrams of verified relationships among constructs. Can be based on theory.
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mechanical Models
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how things work
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Population
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the complete set of individuals a researcher is interested in studying
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Parameter
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a number calculated on population data
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Sample
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A subset of the populations that is representative of the population
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statistic
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A number calculated on the sample data
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random sample
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Equal probability
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stratified sample
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Random sample from clearly defined strata/subgroups based on proportional allocations
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convenience
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an available sample that has the characteristics of the population
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dependent variable
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what is being measured by the investigator
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data
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always plural. Measurements of the dependent variables (s)
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internal validity
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the soundness or overall quality of the research
o Accurate and reliable o Appropriate statistical techniques used to analyze the data o Were the effects other than the independent variables minimized |
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external validity
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the generalizability of the results
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basic research
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the need to know something is so, without knowing what to do with the knowledge
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applied research
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directly serve to improve human conditions
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scientific misconduct def
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fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism in proposing performing, or reviewing research, or in reporting research results
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measurement scales
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The set of possible numbers that may be obtained by the measurement process (tape measure, goniometer, skin fold calipers, money spent on advertisement, coding process (frequency))
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properties of scales
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Magnitude, equal intervals, and absolute zero
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magnitude
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when a scale has magnitude, one case of the attribute being measured can judged greater than, less than, or equal to another case
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Equal intervals
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the magnitude of the attribute represented by a unit of measurement on the scale is same regardless of where on the scale the units falls
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absolute zero point
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A value which indicated that nothing at all of the attribute being measured exists
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ratio scale
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any scale possessing magnitude, equal intervals, and a true zero point
o Can have ratio or proportion |
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interval scale
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possesses magnitude and equal intervals but not an absolute zero point
o Ex: Temperature, IQ, grades |
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ordinal scale
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possesses magnitude only
o Ex: ranks, race finish, anxiety level |
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nominal scale
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results from classification or items into discrete/mutually exclusive categories that reflect no magnitude
o Majors, gender, race, geographic regions |
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mean
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sum of X/n
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median
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50%ile score
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mode
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most frequent score
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range
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max-min
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Deviation score
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X-mean
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sum of squares
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SS = Σ(Xi-X)2
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variability
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refers to the extent to which the distribution differ from their measure of central tendency
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range
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crude approximation of variability
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variance
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s2): an index that reflects the average sum of the squared deviations of scores about their mean
• S2 = ∑ (Xi- X)2 N-1 gives a better N-1 estimate with smaller samples of population parameters |
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scientific research
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• Primary purpose of research is to understand the truth about something
• Building a strong case with supporting data-similar to a court case, build evidence for an explanation and subject it to your peers |
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scientific method
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o Define the problem – research questions
o Form a hypothesis to test Research vs. null hypothesis o Review what is already known – review Lit. o Design and perform a study to test your hypothesis o Repeat the study to confirm the results Replication is usually is done by others to help verify your findings o Draw conclusions and make generalizations and recommendations |
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observational studies
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pseudo experiment no variables are manipulated
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naturalistic observation
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descriptive
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parameter estimations
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description of population values of a specific variable
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correlation study
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describe relationships between variables
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developmental study
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describe the developmental trajectory of a variable across age
Purpose: to describe how a variable of interest changes over age |
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case study
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in-depth look at one subject
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qualitative study
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qualitative
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true experiment
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o Manipulate the independent variable
o Measure the effect on the dependent variable o Random assignment |
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descriptive statistics
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Describe or characterize your data.
•Descriptive statistics are calculated on dependent variable(s) and presented by the levels of the independent variable |
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inferential statistics
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making an inference form a sample of the population
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parametric techniques
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assumes your dependent variable(s) are normally distributed- not skewed
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nonparametric techniques
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no assumptions
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quality research involves
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•Identifying and delimiting the problem
•Searching, reviewing, and writing about the literature •Specifying and defining testable hypotheses •Selecting, describing, testing, and treating the participants •Analyzing and reporting the results •Discussing the meaning and implications of the findings |
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research report def
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a written document that gives the history of a research study from start to finish
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what's in a research report
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oStatement of the research question(s)
oPresentation of what is known about the topic and why the question is important oDescription of all the procedures used to measure the variables, organize, & analyze the data oFinding related to the research questions oConclusions that are supported by the findings |
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why ppl typically dont read research reports
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•Inaccessibility of reports
oSpecialized jargon oPerceived level of intellectual demand oLack of self-evident validation oDifficult retrieval process •Difficulty in differentiating a good report from one that is not so good |
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problems with research
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•Complexity of results – results frequently depend on many factors
•Conflicting results – studies do not always agree ob/c: small sample sizes, reliable measurements, bias in research •Trivial topics with no application to real world. •Basic vs. Applied research •Researchers try to be affect- free while policy makers prefer people to be passionate |
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what can u find when reading research
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•Facts supported by data-formal findings
•Information-informal observations that turn up in a study •Conclusions that data allow the researchers to offer •Other reports or references •Key terms and new terminology •A review of the topic and its importance •Methods of recording or measuring- what to collect and how are others doing it •Interventions or treatments employed •Discussion of findings •Recommendations and applications |
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refereed publications
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peer reviewed with feedback and editorial decision
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Generally what is in a research paper
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•Literature review that leads to establishing the importance of the problem and the research question
•Methods of data collection-specifics •Evidence to support the validity and reliability of measures taken •Data reduction and analysis •A discussion of results related to the research questions •Conclusions that can be made based on results •A discussion of future research needs |
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where is research done?
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Universities, Military, Government, Business/Corporations-Private dissemination, Political polls
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Review process for journals
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•Presentations- abstract, short and long
•Publications-blind reviews •Reviewers •What factors: oSignificance oMethods of measure oData analysis oQuality of writing oOrganization of manuscript • Editor’s role-make decision based the reviews |
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researcher's selection where to submit
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Most prestigious journal.
•Most selective journals = most prestige •Acceptance rate ~5% What journals are cited more frequently in mass media? Audience Average time for review and publication Specialized journals vs. general discipline The lower the acceptance rate the more you can place in the results of the study |
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how to judge whether to place trust in a study?
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•Reputation of author, journal
•Source of funding •Sponsorship by research or professional Association |
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reasons to question the research results
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Technical errors/problems: need to see specifics
Sampling Lack of replication-smaller samples Conflicts of interest Carelessness and poor scholarship |
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reading research
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Become familiar with relevant publications
Read studies of interest Read as a practitioner would Read the abstract first Don’t worry too much about the statistics Be critical but objective Don’t let the statistics intimidate you |
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criteria in selecting a research problem/question
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Workability: Can you do this within your ability and resources?
Critical mass: Is the problem appropriate? Interest: do you want to do this? Theoretical value: Does it contribute to knowledge? Practical value: What might be changed as a result |
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Reading and recording the literature
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Statement of the problem-research question
Hypothesis Characteristics of the participants Instruments and tests used Testing procedure Variables: independent and dependent Treatments applied Design and statistical analysis Findings Questions for further study Citations to other studies When to copy the article |
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parts o the method process
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oParticipants
oInstruments or apparatus oProcedures oDesign and analysis |
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two principles of planning
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oLess is more. Reduce the complexity of the study. Examine the number of variables that are theoretically or practically important
oSimple is better. From the design, to treatments, to analyses, to displaying results, makes interpretation easier |
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describing participants
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oSpecial characteristics: What relates to the study?
Age, sex, training level oNumber of participants oLoss of participants and why oProtecting participants |
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Questions to consider in selecting instruments
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Validity and reliability
Difficulty of obtaining measures Access to equipment or rests Knowing how to use them |
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what should be presented when describing instruments
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Description (including validity and reliability)
Drawing, photograph, sample items How it is scored |
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describing procedures: what will happen
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When, where, how much time
Pilot data: Can you do this? Scheme for data acquisition, recording and scoring |
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Describing procedures: planning treatments
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How long, how intense, how often
Participant adherence Pilot data: Can participants do this? Appropriate treatment for participants and appropriate control conditions |
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Avoiding Methodological faults
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oDetails of the procedures
Specific order of things Timing of events Instructions given Briefings, debriefings, safeguards oPiloting your procedures Can you do this? Can participants do this? Do measures work? Do treatments work? oDesign and Analysis Design a study in which •Treatments cause the changes observed •The variables are related with no intervening variables Analyzing the data •Correct analysis •Correct interpretation Establishing cause and effect •Independent variable dependent variable |
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7 ares of scientific dishonesty
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Plagiarism: using the ideas, writings, and drawing of others as your own
Fabrication and falsification: making up or altering data Nonpublication of data Faulty data-gathering procedures Poor data storage and retention Misleading authorship oTechnicians do not necessarily become joint authors oAuthorship should involve only those who contribute directly Sneaking publication practices oJoin publication |
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what is "fair use" of materials?
ethnical issues regarding copyright |
oPurpose: Commercial or educational?
oNature: Is copying expected? oAmount: How much is copied? oEffect: What is the influence on the market? |
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Model for considering scientific misconduct
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Scientific misconduct ->sanctions
Scientific mistakes ->remedial activities Causes of scientific misconduct oPressure to publish oNeed to complete graduate work oDesire to continue funding oDesire for academic rewards |
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Ethical Issues in Human and Animal Research
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Institutional review boards
Humans oInformed consent oHuman participants committee Animals oJustification oValue of animal models Conflicts of interest oFunded research projects oUsing students(classes) and volunteers |
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Protecting human participants
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oRight to privacy or nonparticipation
oRight to remain anonymous oRight to confidentiality oRight to experimenter responsibility |
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elements of informed consent
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A fair explanation of the procedures to be followed, including identification of those that are experimental
A description of the attendant discomforts and risks A description of the benefits to be expected A disclosure of appropriate alternative procedures that would be advantageous for the participant An offer to answer any injuries concerning the procedures An instruction that the participant is free to withdraw at any time |
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Use of animals in reserach
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Animals have been essential for every advance in medicine
Animal research has contributed to virtually eliminating many infectious diseases 17-22 million vertebrates are used each year in research, education, and testing 2/3 of the dogs and cats used in animal research come from shelters; for every one used in research 100 are killed for lack of a home 2/3 of the research projects that lead to the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine involve animal experiments |
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Summation notation
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oX1 X2 X3……….Xn
o∑ X= X1 + X2+ X3…………+Xn sum of X o∑X2=X12+ X22+ X32……+Xn2 sum of the squared X values o(∑X)2 = (X1+X2+X3…….+Xn)2 sum of X, squared |
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rounding
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Rounds to 2 decimal places after the decimal
If the 3rd decimal place after the decimal is .5 oIf odd. +1 oIf even. Do not change it |
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standard deviations def
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(s) Most common statistic used in research to describe the variability in the distribution of scores. Is in the same unit of measurement as the raw data unlike S2
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properties of standard deviation
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oMeasure of dispersion relative to the mean
oSensitive to each score oStable with regard to sampling fluctuations oUsed in making decisions of relative standing for selection of people oUsed to calculate standard scores allowing comparison of scores from distributions having different means and standard deviations |
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why should we study physical activity
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•Obesity epidemic
•People aren’t as active as they used to be •Health and wellness •Psychological benefits •Stress relief •Enjoyment •Independence |
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methods for studying physical activity
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•Questionnaires
oMemory issues oAge of participants oInexpensive •Direct Observation oValidation of activity oTypes of activity oTime intensive •Accelerometry oObjective oexpensive |
