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160 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Meninges |
The membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord |
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Conus Medullaris |
Cone-shaped end of spinal cord, inferior to lumbar enlargement |
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Filum Terminale |
Fibrousthread- like extension of conus –anchors spinal cord to coccyx |
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Cauda Equina |
"Horses Tail" Formedby dorsal and ventral roots of most lumbar, sacral, and coccygealnerves that hang below conus medullaris |
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Cervical Enlargement |
Nerves to / from upper limbs |
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Lumbar Enlargement |
Nerves to / from lower limbs |
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Gray Matter |
Located in spinal cord core / unmyelinated axons |
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White Matter |
Located at outer areas of spinal cord / Descending and ascending myelinated axons allows communication between differentparts of spinal cord and between spinal cord and brain (CNS) |
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Pia Mater |
The delicate innermost layer of the meninges / a thin fibrous tissue that is impermeable to fluid, enclosing cerebrospinal fluid |
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Subarachnoid Space |
The space between Pia Mater and Arachnoid Mater / contains cerebrospinal fluid |
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Arachnoid Mater |
The middle layer around spinal cord |
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Subdural Space |
Space between Arachnoid Mater and Dura Mater |
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Dura Mater |
The thickest, outermost layer of meninges |
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Dorsal Horns |
Posterior projections of gray matter / composed of sensory neurons |
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Ventral Horns |
Anterior projections of gray matter / composed of motor neurons |
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Lateral Horns |
Side projections of gray matter / well defined in thoracic segments and composed of visceral neurons |
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Ascending Tracts |
White Matter / carries sensory information up spinal cord |
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Descending Tracts |
White Matter / conducts motor impulses down spinal cord |
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Major Ascending Pathways |
- Medial Lemniscal (dorsal white column) - Spinothalamic (lateral / ventral white column) - Spinocerebellar - Spinoreticular |
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Major Descending Pathways |
- Direct (corticospinal) - Indirect (tecto/vestibulo/rubro/reticulo--spinal) |
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Decussation |
Crossing from one side of the CNS to the other |
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1st Order Neurons |
Unipolar / Sensory impulses conducted from somatic receptors to spinal cord •Receptorsof neck, body transmit sensory impulses alongspinal nerves •Receptorsof face, mouth, teeth and eyes transmit sensory impulses along cranial nerves |
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2nd Order Neurons |
Interneuron / Impulses transmitted from spinal cord/brain stem to thalamus after decussating |
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3rd Order Neurons |
Interneuron / Impulses transmitted from thalamus to primary somatosensory area of cortex |
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Medial Lemniscal Pathway |
Sensoryinfo for discriminative touch, proprioception, deep pressure, vibration, andvisceral pain |
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Spinothalamic Tract |
Sensoryinfo for pain, temp, pressure, tickle, itch, and crude touch |
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Spinocerebellar Tract |
Proprioceptivesignals from limbs & trunk (muscle or tendon stretch) to cerebellum |
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Spinoreticular Tracts |
Sensory info for pain from tissue injury |
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Corticospinal Tract |
Activates skeletal muscles on opposite side of body |
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Endoneurium |
Layer surrounding individual nerve fibers |
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Perineurium |
Layer surrounding a bundle of neurons |
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Epineurium |
Layer surrounding the entire peripheral nerve |
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Afferent Nerves |
Sensory nerves conduct impulses towards spinal cord |
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Efferent Nerves |
Motor nerves conduct impulses away from spinal cord |
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Dermatomes |
Area of skinsupplied by the cutaneous branches of one spinal nerve |
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Spinal Shock |
Temporary loss of all or most spinal reflex activity below the level of the injury |
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Flaccid Paralysis |
Extreme weakness of muscles and loss of muscle tone |
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Spastic Paralysis |
A chronic pathological condition in which the muscles are effected by persisent spasms and exaggerated tendon reflexes because of damage to the CNS |
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Paraplegia |
Complete or incomplete paralysis affecting the legs and possibly the trunk, but not the arms, results from damage to the cord at T1 and below |
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Quadriplegia |
Paralysis of both the arms and the legs |
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Inborn Reflex |
Intrinsic & Automatic / Rapid, involuntary, predictable motorresponse to a stimulus i.e., when you splash a pot of boilingwater on your arm –likely you will drop the pot instantly and involuntarily |
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Learned Reflex |
Acquired / results from practice or repetition i.e., driving skills |
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Reflex Arc |
Reflexesare due to nerve impulses that follow a specific neural pathway |
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Components of Reflex Arc |
1. Receptor 2. Sensory Neuron 3. Integration Center 4. Motor Neuron 5. Effector |
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Stretch and Tendon Reflexes
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- Muscle Spindles: measures length - Patellar: tendon measures tension |
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Muscle Spindles |
Sensory receptors within a muscle that primarily detect changes in the length of muscle |
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Patellar / Knee-Jerk Reflexes |
A stretchreflex that helps keep knees from buckling when standing up |
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Reciprocal Inhibition |
The process of muscles on one side of a joint relaxing to accommodate contraction on the other side of that joint |
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Stretch Reflex |
Makes sure that the muscle stays at the length the brain has set |
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Monosynaptic |
A characteristic of stretch reflexes: involves a single synapse |
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Ipsilateral |
A characteristic of stretch reflexes: motor activity is on the same side of the body |
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Tendon Reflex |
Produces muscle relaxation in response to tension, helps prevent damage due to excessive stretch |
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Reciprocal Activation |
Contractingmuscle relaxes; antagonist contracts |
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Flexor Reflex |
Withdrawal: initiated by painful stimulus. Causes automatic withdrawal of threatenedbody part |
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Crossed Extensor Reflex |
Withdrawal: When the reflex occurs the flexors in the withdrawing limb contract and the extensors relax, while in the other limb, the opposite occurs Ex: a person steps on a nail, & pulls away, while the other leg takes the weight of the whole body |
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Plantar Reflex |
A Superficial Reflex: Stimulus- stroke lateral aspect of sole of foot Response- downward flexion of toes |
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Babinski's Sign |
Occurs after the sole of the foot has been firmly stroked, the big toe then moves upward or toward the top surface of the foot while the other toes fan out. Normal in infants, older than 2 years old is a sign of NS disorder |
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Abdominal Reflex |
Stroking the abdomen skin results in a contraction of the abdominal muscles toward the stimulus site |
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Mechanoreceptors |
A sensory receptor that responds to mechanical pressure or distortion Ex: Merkel |
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Merkel Nerve Ending |
A large, myelinated, mechanoreceptor found in basal epidermis and hair follicles |
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Thermoreceptors |
A sensory receptor that responds to temperature |
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Photoreceptors |
A sensory receptor that responds to visible light |
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Chemoreceptors |
A sensory receptor that responds to chemical stimuli |
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Nociceptors |
A sensory neuron that responds to damage, or threat of damage, to body tissues, leading to pain perception |
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Exteroceptors |
A sense organ, such as the ear, that receives andresponds to stimuli originating from outside the body |
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Interoceptors |
A sensory receptor that detects stimulus within the body Ex: blood pressure, blood oxygen level |
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Proprioceptors |
Sensors that provide information about joint angle, muscle length, and muscle tension, which is integrated to give information about the position of the limb in space Ex: muscle spindle |
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Nonencapsulated Nerve Endings |
Free Nerve Endings Non-myelinated sensory neurons, respond to temp & painful stimuli Ex: Merkel cells & hair follicle receptors |
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General Senses |
Found throughout the body and monitor most types of general sensory information |
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Special Senses |
Vision, hearing, equilibrium, smell, taste |
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Somatic Senses |
Senses that collect information about cutaneous sensations (tactile sensations on the surface of the skin) and proprioceptive sensations |
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Visceral Senses |
Senses that are encased within the visceral organs |
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Sensation |
The process of sensing our environment through touch, taste, sight, sound, and smell |
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Perception |
The way we interpret sensations and therefore make sense of everything around us |
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Transduction |
The stimulus must be converted into the energy of a graded potential |
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Generator Potential |
A graded potential generates action potentials in a sensory neuron |
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Receptor Potential |
A graded potential occurs in a separate receptor cell |
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Phasic Receptors |
Fast adapting receptors often giving bursts of impulses at the beginning and end of a stimulus / report changes in the internal or external environments |
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Tonic Receptors |
Sensory input adapts slowly to a stimulus and continues to produce action potentials over the duration of the stimulus |
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Circuit Level Processing |
Delivery of impulses to the appropriate region of the cerebral cortex for localization and perception of the stimulus |
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Perceptual Level Processing |
Sensory input is interpreted in the cerebral cortex |
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Pain Receptors: A Fibers |
These are the smallest myelinated sensory fibers that carry sharp pain |
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Pain Receptors: C Fibers |
Small, non myelinated fibers that slowly carry burning pain |
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Referred Pain |
Pain stimuli arising in one part of the body is perceived from another part Ex: Heart attack results in pain down left arm |
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Autonomic Nervous System |
A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that regulates body activities that are generally not underconscious control |
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Preganglionic Neuron |
Motor neuron cell body is in brain/spinalcord; has a thin, lightly myelinated axon |
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Postganglionic Neuron |
Cell body in autonomicganglionoutside CNS, has nonmyelinated axon thatextends to effector organ |
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Efferent Pathways & Ganglion |
SNS: Cell bodies in CNS, axons extend to skeletal muscles ANS: Has 2 efferent motor chains. Motor neuron cell body is in brain/spinal cord; has a thin, lightly myelinated axon. Cell body in autonomic ganglion outside CNS, has nonmyelinated axon that extends to effector organ |
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Neurotransmitter Effects |
SNS: Release ACh, a stimulating effect ANS: Release norepinephrine (sympathetic) and ACh (parasympathetic) |
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Autonomic Nervous System Subdivisions |
- Sympathetic - Parasympathetic |
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Parasympathetic Division |
Promotes maintenance functions / Conserves body energy (“rest & digest”) |
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Sympathetic Division |
Mobilizes body during activity / Exercise, excitement, emergency, embarrassment (“fight,flight or fright”) |
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Dual Innervation |
One division stimulates certainsmooth muscles to contract or a gland to secrete; the other division inhibitsthis action Ex: Para = constriction of pupil / Sypm = dilation of pupil |
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Craniosacral |
Where parasympathetic fibers originate; from the brain and sacral spinal cord |
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Thoracolumbar |
Where sympathetic fibers originate; from thoracic and lumbar regions of spinal cord |
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Parasympathetic Fiber Length |
Longpreganglionicand shortpostganglionicfibers |
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Sympathetic Fiber Length |
Short preganglionicand longpostganglionicfibers |
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Cholinergic Neurons |
Release neurotransmitter ACh |
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Adrenergic Neurons |
Release neurotransmitter NE |
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Anticholinergic |
Blocks muscarinic ACh receptors / Used to prevent salivation duringsurgery, and to dilate pupils for examination |
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Olfactory Epothelium |
A specialized epithelial tissue inside the nasal cavity that detects odors |
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Cribriform Plate |
Part of the human skull located behind the nose |
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Odorants |
Any substance that has a distictive smell |
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Olfactory Adaptation |
The temporary inability to distinguish a particular odor after prolonged exposure. Ex: food initially smells strong, but after time the awareness of the odor normally fades |
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Hyposmia |
Reduced ability to smell and detect odors |
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Anosmia |
Inability to perceive odor
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Fungiform Papillae |
Taste buds respond to both sweet and sour tastes / mushroom-shaped / scattered over the surface of the tongue, particularly the tip and along the sides |
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Vallate Papillae |
Taste buds are sensitive to bitter / lie near the back of the palatine section of the tongue and are arranged in a V-shaped formation directed toward the throat |
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Filiform Papillae |
Most numerous papillae / acts as an abrasive coating, which helps give the tongue a cleaning and rasping action |
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5 Basic Tastes |
1. Sweet 2. Bitter 3. Sour 4. Salty 5. Umami |
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Gustatory Hairs |
Hair of taste buds |
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Fibrous Tunic |
The outer layer of the eye: formed by the cornea and sclera |
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Vascular Tunic |
The middle layer of the eye: Iris, Ciliary body, Choroid |
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Nervous Tunic |
Inner layer of the eye: formed by the retina |
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Anterior Cavity |
Fluid-filled space inside the eye between the iris and the cornea |
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Posterior Cavity |
The small space directly posterior to the iris and anterior to the lens |
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Aqueous Humor |
Thin, watery fluid that fills the space between the cornea and the iris / nourishes the cornea and the lens and gives the eye it's shape |
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Vitreous Body |
The clear gel that fills the space between the lens and the retina of the eyeball |
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Floaters |
Shreds of fiber that float around the vitreous gel |
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Constrictor Pupillae |
A muscle in the iris that constricts the pupil |
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Dilator Pupillae |
A muscle in the iris that dilates the pupil |
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Rods |
Photoreceptors in the retina that are most sensitive to light and dark changes, shape and movement / dim-lightand peripheral vision receptors |
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Cones |
Photoreceptors in the retina that are most sensitive to one of three different colors (green, red or blue) |
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Fovea Centralis |
A small, central pit composed of closely packed cones in the eye / responsible for sharp central vision |
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Macula Lutea |
An oval-shaped pigmented area near the center of the retina / specialized for high-acuity vision |
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Acuity |
Sharp, keen vision |
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Bipolar Cells |
Effectively transfer information from rods and cones to ganglion cells |
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Ganglion Cells |
A type of neuron located near the inner surface of the retina / Responsible for transferring information from the eye to the brain |
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Optic Nerve |
Nerve that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain |
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Refraction |
Bending of alight ray occurs when it meets the surface of a different medium at an obliqueangle (i.e., straw in water glass) |
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Retinal Image |
Imageformed by convex lens at focal point is upside-down and reversed right to left |
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Accommodation |
The ability of the eye to change its focus from distant to near objects (and vice versa). This process is achieved by the lens changing its shape |
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Emmetropic |
20/20 vision |
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Myopia |
Near-sightedness |
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Hypermetropia |
Far-sightedness |
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Astigmatism |
Anirregular shape of the cornea or the lens inside the eye |
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Concave Eyeglasses |
Used to correct near-sightedness |
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Convex Eyeglasses |
Used to correct far-sightedness |
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Photopigments |
Unstable pigments that undergo a chemical change when they absorb light |
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Retinal |
The key molecule involved in vision |
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Opsin |
The universal photoreceptor molecules of all visual systems |
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Rhodopsin |
The primary pigment found in rod photoreceptors |
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Inner Ear |
Mainly responsible for sound detection and balance |
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Outer Ear |
External portion of ear / gathers sound energy and focuses it on the eardrum |
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Middle Ear |
Transfer acoustic energy from compression waves in air to fluid–membrane waves within the cochlea |
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Stapes |
A bone in the middle ear, involved in the conduction of sound vibrations to theinner ear |
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Malleus |
A hammer-shaped small bone of the middle ear which connects with the incus and is attached to the inner surface of the eardrum |
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Incus |
The anvil-shaped small bone in the middle ear / receives vibrations from the malleus and transmits these to the stapes |
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Oval Window |
A membrane-covered opening which leads from the middle ear to the vestibule of the inner ear |
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Tympanic Membrane |
A thin, cone-shaped membrane that separates theexternal ear from the middle ear / eardrum |
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Eustachian Tube |
A tube that links the nasopharynx to the middle ear / pressure equalization & mucus drainage |
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Cochlea |
The auditory portion of the inner ear / spiral-shaped cavity |
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Semicircular Canals |
Three semicircular, interconnected tubes located inside each ear / balance |
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Basilar Membrane |
The membrane that forms the floor of the cochlear duct, on which the cochlear hair cells are located |
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Tectorial Membrane |
Connective tissue that covers the mechanically-sensitive hair bundles of the sensory receptor cells in the inner ear |
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Hair Cells |
The sensory receptors of inner ear |
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Sound Waves |
A wave of compression and rarefaction, by which sound is propagated in an elastic medium such as air |
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Decibels |
A unit used to measure the intensity of a sound |
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Static Equilibrium |
Occurs when the body is motionless or moving in a straight line / detects the movement of your head |
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Dynamic Equilibrium |
Occurs when the body is moving in a rotational or angular direction |
