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152 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Amplitude
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Maximum variation in air pressure
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Pitch
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The perception of frequency
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Cycle
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1 complete variation of air pressure
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Frequency
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the rate at which cycles occur
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Human perception of sound range
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16-20Hz to 20,000Hz
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Speech
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the medium through which we transmit linguistically encoded thoughts
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2 Properties of all communication systems
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Meaningful and ecological
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4 Properties of some communication systems
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Reciprocity, learned through interaction, arbitrary, compositionality
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3 Properties particular to human language
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Displacement, open-endedness, duality of patterning
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Sound
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A disturbance of the air that we sense through our auditory system
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Acoustic waveform
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record of sound-producing pressures over time
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Periodic sounds
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waveforms that repeat at regular intervals
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2 types of periodic sound
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Simple and complex
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Simple sound
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sine wave and pure tones - make up complex sounds
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Complex sounds
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combination of 2+ simple sounds repeating at regular intervals
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How to calculate standard pitch ovtaves
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multiply the frequency by 2x to go up 1 octave
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Phase
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timing of a waveform relative to some reference point
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Fundamental frequency
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the main repeating pattern of a complex waveform
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White noise
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the most complex sound possible - doesn't occur naturally
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Harmonic
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Any whole number multiple of the fundamental frequency
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power spectrum
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amplitude x frequency plot of simple components of a complex wave
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Aperiodic sounds
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sounds with no regular repeating pattern
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Transient sounds
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An aperiodic sound - sudden pressure fluctuations not sustained over time
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IPA
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International phonetic alphabet - set of symbols designed to provide a universally understood system for transcribing speech sounds
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Phoneticians
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transcribe speech sounds using the IPA
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Consonants
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a sound made when the vocal tract is constricted - defined by POA and MOA and voicing
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POA
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Place of articulation - where the closure happens
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MOA
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Manner of articulation - how the closure occurs (quickly, slowly, fully)
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5 MOA
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Stop, fricative, affricate, approximate, lateral
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Stop
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air stream is completely obstructed: m,b,t,g,
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Nasal Stops
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air is prevented (stopped) from going out the mouth but is allowed to escape through the nose: m, n, ng
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Fricatives
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When air is pushed through a narrow vocal tract and air flow is turbulent: s, sh, chi, th
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Approximate
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When the vocal tract is slightly narrowed but not enough to make the air turbulent
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Articulators
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part of the vocal tract used to form speech sounds - 7 kinds
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7 articulators
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Bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palato-aevolar, palatal, velar, glottal,
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voiced
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pronounce with vibration of the vocal cords: z,b,v,d,g
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unvoiced
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pronounced without the vibration of the vocal cords: s,p,f,t,k
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2 tpyes of speech recording
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Digital and analog
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Digital speech recording
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a discrete signal where the number of decimal places are always limited - loose info
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Analog speech recording
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a continuous signal where time and amplitude are represented by numbers that have a theoretically infinite number of places after the decimal
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2 steps in analog to digital conversion
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Sampling and quantization
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Sampling
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breaking up a sound wave into time chunks - need at least 2 samples per sine wave
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Nyquist frequency
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the highest frequency component that can be captured with a given sampling rate
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Aliasing
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A distortion in the signal that occurs when the continuous signal completes more than 1 cycle between successive digitized samples
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What transport is used by the Na-glucose cotransporter in the SMALL INTESTINE??
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Symport
Na OUT, Glu IN |
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Quantization
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measurements of amplitude - need to determine how accurately you want to measure it. more points = smoother curve
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Quantization noise
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Quasirandom noise introduced because of the step-like pattern of digital wave forms
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Accuracy of quantization
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number of bits used to store the waveforms - 16 bits is standard for human speech
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Auto-correction pitch tracking
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overlaying sucessive periods of a wave form there is correlation - can be used to find f0
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Pitch-halving
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when a computer is told to restrict pitch range 2 pitch periods are mistaken for 1
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Pitch-Doubling
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When a computer is told to restrict pitch range a 1/2 pitch period is mistaken for a full pitch period
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Formants
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Strong harmonics/resonant frequencies
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IPA
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International Phonetic Alphabet used to transcribe speech sounds of any language
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What motion causes sound?
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Opening and closing of the vocal cords
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What makes 1 vowel different from another vowel?
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Quality
Not pitch or loudness |
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2 types of non-periodic sounds
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aperiodic/transient and fricative
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Andrew Carnegie
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tried to convert all english spelling to IPA - spelling reform - didn't work
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Gestural economy
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tendency to use the same gestures in many different sounds ex. d and n have the same gesture but have different MOA
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parallel transmission
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speech can encode and transmit information about several linguistic events in parallel - very efficient
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consonant
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sound made with an obstruction of the vocal tract - defined by MOA, POA and voicing
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Vowel
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Sound made with no obstruction of the vocal tract - can be defined by pattern of their 1st 2 formants
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What are vowels generally louder than consonants
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because there is no constriction of air flow. more air = more amplitude
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VOT
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Voice onset time - time from release of a stop to onset of voicing
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aspiration
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when air rushes through the glottis without vibration - produces 'h' sound
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Why can we never hear unmodified vocal cord sound?
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Because by the time it reaches the lips it has been shaped by the vocal tract
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Resonance
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the way in which objects vibrate when they have been set into motion
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Segmentals
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the vowels and consonants of speech
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Suprasegmentals
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information superimposed on top of speech segmentals
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Source-filter model of vowel production
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source of sound = vocal cords, filter = vocal tract. the independence of source and filter allow changes in amplitude and pitch to produce the same vowel
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Diphthong
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A vowel whose qualities change from start to finish
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Monophthong
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A vowel whose qualities don't change from start to finish
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How to characterize vowels
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By F1 and F2 or POA
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Consonants
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Sounds made with an obstruction of the vocal tract. Defined in terms of MOA, POA and voicing
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Manner of Articulation
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Stops, Nasal Stops, Fricatives, Affricates, Approximates,
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Stops
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MOA in which the airstream is completely obstructed
Ex. M, B, T, G |
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Nasal Stops
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MOA in which the air is prevented from going out the mouth but is allowed out the nose. Ex. N, M, NG
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Fricatives
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A MOA where the vocal tract is narrowed, which leads to turbulent airflow - a hiss sound close to white nosie
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Approximate
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MOA where the vocal tract is only slightly narrowed
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Affricate
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MOA that involves 2 places of articulation, followed by a fricative.
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Place of Articulation
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Bilabial, Labio-dental, Dental, Alveolar, Palato-Alveolar, Palatal, Velar
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Articulator
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Parts of the vocal tract that are used to form speech sounds
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2 Modes of voicing
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Unvoiced and voiced
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2 types of speech recording
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Analog and digital
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Digital speech recording
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a discrete signal where the number of decimal places are limited - speech signal = dotted line
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Analog speech recording
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A continuous signal where time and amplitude are represented by numbers that are theoretically infinite
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2 steps in analog to digital conversion
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Sampling and quantization
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Sampling
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1st step in analog to digital conversion. Decide number of points on the time axis - need at least 2 per cycle
Sampling must be 2x the cycle rate |
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Quantization
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The 2nd step in analog to digital conversion. Deciding how accurately amplitude is to be measured. More point = smoother curve
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Nyquist frequency
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In sampling the highest frequency component that can be captured given the sampling rate. = 1/2 the sampling rate
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Aliasing
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a distortion in the sound signal that occurs when a continuous signal completes more than 1 cycle between successive digitized samples
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Accuracy of quantization
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The number of bits used to store the waveform samples. For speech 16 bits is standard
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Quantization noise
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Quasirandom noise generated from quantization because digital noise is step-like rather than a curve
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Auto-correction Pitch tracking
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When overlaying sucessive periods there is a high degree of correlation which can be used to find f0 of a waveform
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Pitch-halving
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when restricting the pitch range on a computer 2 pitch periods are mistaken to be only 1 and the f0 is halved
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Pitch-doubling
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when restricting the pitch range on a computer 1/2 a pitch period is mistaken for 1 and f0 is doubled
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Formants
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resonant frequencies of the vocal tract. formants change each time vocal tract configuration changes
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What makes 1 vowel different from another vowel
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Quality: the frequencies and amplitudes of the component waves
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3 components used to describe a sound wave
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Amplitude, frequency and phase
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Power spectrum
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amplitude vs. frequency plot of the simple sine wave components of a complex wave
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2 types of sound
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Periodic and non-periodic
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2 types of periodic sound
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Simple and complex
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2 types of non-periodic sounds
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aperiodic/transient and fricatives
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Transient/aperiodic sounds
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sounds resulting from sudden fluctuations in air pressure that are not sustained over time
ex. balloon popping or stop consonants /b/ and /p/ |
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Andrew Carnegie
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tried to convince the president that there needed to be a spelling reform to IPA
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Gestural Economy
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tendency to use the same gestures in many different sounds
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IPA Transcription
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qualitative description of speech done without relying on orthography
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2 ways of describing speech sounds
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IPA Transcription and Acoustic recording
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Gestures
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Speech tasks (ex. closing the lips) that are coordinated in a certain way to produce speech sounds
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Parallel trasmission
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In speech when gestures are continuous and overlap (co-articualted). A very efficient way to transmit information
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Why are vowels generally louder than consonants?
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Because there is no contriction in airflow which leads to more air and higher amplitude
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3 possible orderings during a nasal stop
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1. Closing the vocal tract at the velum
2. Lowering of the velum to let air through 1 --> 2; 2 --> 1 or 1 and 2 at the same time |
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Diacritic
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IPA symbol used in narrow transcription
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VOT
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time from the release of a stop to the onset of voicing. Can be positive, negative or zero
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Vowel production
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Source: vocal cords vibrating in a periodic fashion. f0 = number of glottal pulses per second
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Why can we never hear the unmodified sound of vocal cord vibration
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By the time vocal cord sound reaches the lips it has been modified by the vocal tract
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If we could hear unmodified sound of the vocal tract, what would it look like?
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An f0 with a 2nd, 3rd, 4th… harmonic. The lower harmonics will have greater intensity that the higher harmonics
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Resonances
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the way in which an object will vibrate when its been set into motion
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Segmentals
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the vowels and consonants of speech
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Suprasegmentals
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information superimposed on top of speech segmentals
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Source-filter model of vowel production
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noise generating Source = glottis and filter that attenuates and amplifies harmonics = vocal tracts. Both are independent of each other
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What are the vertical striations in a spectrogram?
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opening/closing of the glottis. 1 cycle = 1 strip
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Independence of source and filter
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the rate of vocal cord vibration is independent of the configuration of the vocal tract - f0 and harmonic may change, but the formants remain the same
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How are vowels characterized?
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By their f1 and f2 values (and sometimes by f3)
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4 ways of crowding f/f2 space
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1. Rounded vowels
2. Diphthong vs. Monophthong 3. Lax vs. Tense 4. Vowel length |
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Vowel in english that is characterized by f3
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the vowel in 'bird' - 1st 2 formants look like the verb in 'hood'
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Why do the vocal folds get blown apart only to be sucked back together (2 reasons)
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1. Bernouli Effect
2. Elasticity |
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Velar pinch
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in Velar sounds (g/k) f2 and f3 are pinched together at the ends
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What makes voices uniques?
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Environment and anatomy
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What do voiced sounds look like in a spectrogram?
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vertical striations
= vibration of vocal cords |
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What do bilabial sounds look like in a spectrogram?
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formants are generally lowered
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What do velar sounds look like in a spectrogram?
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f2 and f3 pinched
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What do stop sounds look like in a spectrogram?
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gap in the pattern, followed by a burst of noise
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What do nasal sounds look like in a spectrogram?
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formants similar to a vowel, but lowered
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What do approximate sounds look like in a spectrogram?
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Formants have similar energy to a nasal but move (inclined or declined)
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Prosodic information
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another term for suprasegmental information
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Prosody
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the melody and rhythm of language - stress and intonation. The first thing our auditory system can perceive
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Why use spectrograms?
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Allow the clear visualization of formant structure of speech and show formants over time
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What does tensing the vocal cords do?
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increase the pitch by making the vibrate faster - increase sub-glottal pressure and increase the Bernouli effect
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Breath group
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section of an utterance between 2 breaths
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What does increasing sub-glottal pressure do?
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causes the vocal cords to open and close more quickly, which leads to an increased f0 (pitch) and louder sounds
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Intonation
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The use of melody to change the meaning of groups of words (in english) and words in other languages
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What does an increase in vocal fold tension do?
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Increase pitch and sub-glottal pressure
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3 Possible Rhythm classes of languages
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Stress times, syllable times and mora timed
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Stress time languages
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Temporal organization is around the stressed syllable - stressed syllables are said at regular intervals
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Syllable timed languages
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Temporal organization is around the syllable - each syllable is said at regular intervals.
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Why are psycholinguistic studies not done on just written language anymore?
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not everyone who communicates can read
Not all languages are in written form Not all information is transmitted in writing |
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4 Effects of Prosody
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1. segmenting words from speech
2. disambiguating syntactic structure 3. Discourse structure 4. emotional prosody (happy, sad, sarcastic) |
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Segmenting words from speech
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Done with prosody. word and segment duration are effected by the placement in prosodic strucutre
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In prosodic structure monosyllabic words are longer/shorter than polysyllabic words?
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monosyllabic words are longer
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Slips of ear
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errors is sensitivity to stressed syllables that blur word boundaries
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Words at the end of phrase boundaries
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Words at the end of phrases are lengthened
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Parity
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achieved when the intended thoughts of one persons are understood by another person
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