South Asian Civilization

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Muḥammad bin Qāsim

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Umayyad general whoconquered the Sindh and Multan regions alongthe Indus River for the Umayyad Caliphate. His conquest for theUmayyads brought Sindh into the orbit of the Muslim world. A member of the Thaqif tribe. Died in 715 CE at theage of only 19.

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Ẓiyāʾal-Dīn Baranī

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Muslim political thinker ofthe Delhi Sultanate during Muhammadbin Tughlaq and Firuz Shah's reign. Produced historical works,including one detailing the caste system among Muslims in South Asia and onethat covers the reigns of several shahs leading up to Firuz Shah. Died 1357 CE.

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Fīrūz Shāh Tughlaq

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Turkic Muslim rulerof the Tughlaq Dynasty, who reigned over the Sultanate of Delhi from1351 to 1388. Tughlaq was a fervent Muslim, and had Hindu temples destroyed, aswell as their books, idols and ceremonial vessels. He faced many rebellions,including in Bengal, Gujarat and Warangal. Nonetheless he workedto improve the infrastructure of the empire building canals, rest-houses andhospitals, creating and refurbishing reservoirs and digging wells.

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Shams al-DīnIltutmish

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ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, considered to beits consolidator, or even founder. Member of the Mamluk dynasty, heir to DinAibak. He expanded his domain by defeating theMuslim rulers of Ghazni, Multan and Bengal, which had previously annexedsome of his territories and threatened his domain. He instituted many changesto the Sultanate, reorganizing the monetary system and the nobility as well asthe distribution of grounds and fiefs, and erected many buildings. Died 1236CE.

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Ghiyāth al-Dīn Balban

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the ninth sultan of the Mamluk dynastyof Delhi. He reduced the power of the treacherousnobility and heightened the stature of the sultan. Devised a theory of kingshipbased on divine right. Reigned until 1287 CE.

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Abū al-Faẓl

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the Grand vizier ofthe Mughal emperor Akbar, and author of the Akbarnama,the official history of Akbar's reign in three volumes. He also translated theBible into Persian. An influential member of the Mughal aristocracy and court. Assassinatedin 1602 CE.

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Khānqāh

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institution of aresidential teaching center for Ṣūfīs that seems to have emerged in Iran withthe formalization of Ṣūfī activity in the late tenth or eleventh century.Support for these religious institutions by the ruling elites gradually broadenedand led to significant patronage in building khānqāhs andendowing stipends for the Ṣūfīs living there. Commonly associated with theChishti order.

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Pīr

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a title for a Sufi master or spiritual guide equally used inthe nath tradition. The title is often translated into English as"saint" and could be interpreted as "Elder".In Sufism a Pir's role is to guide and instruct his disciples on theSufi path.

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Dargāh

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a shrine built over the grave of a revered religious figure,often a Sufi saint or dervish. Muslims may visit the shrine for ziyarat, a termassociated with religious visits and pilgrimages. Dargahs are often associatedwith Sufi meeting rooms and hostels, called khanqah or hospices.They usually include a mosque, meeting rooms, Islamic religious schools(madrassas), residences for a teacher or caretaker, hospitals, and otherbuildings for community purposes.

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Tarīqa

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the term for a school or order of Sufism,or especially for the mystical teaching and spiritual practices of such anorder with the aim of seeking Haqiqa,which translates as "ultimate truth". A tariqa has a murshid (guide) who plays the role of leaderor spiritual director.

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AmīrKhusraw

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Sufi musician, poet and scholar. He wrotepoetry primarily in Persian, butalso in Hindavi. A vocabulary inverse, the Ḳhāliq Bārī,containing Arabic, Persian, and Hindavi terms is often attributed to him. He is regarded as the "father of Qawwali" (a devotional music form of the Sufisin the Indian subcontinent), andintroduced the ghazal style of song into India, both ofwhich still exist widely in India and Pakistan. He is also credited withintroducing Persian, Arabic and Turkish elements into Indian classical music. Died 1325 CE.

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Niẓāmad-Dīn Awliyāʾ

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one of the great saints of the Chishti order in India. Niẓāmad-Dīn Awliyāʾ,like his predecessors, stressed love as a means of realizing God. For him hislove of God implied a love of humanity. His vision of the world was marked by ahighly evolved sense of secularity and kindness. It is claimed by the 14thcentury historiographer Ẓiyāʾal-Dīn Baranī that his influence on the Muslims of Delhi was suchthat a paradigm shift was effected in their outlook towards worldly matters.People began to be inclined towards mysticism and prayers and remaining alooffrom the world. Died 1325 CE.

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Malfūẓāt

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literally “utterances”, in Ṣūfīparlance denotes the conversations of a mystic teacher. The malfūẓ literaturewas intelligible to people at all levels and had a space-time context. Theproduction of malfūẓ literature in India during the 8th/14th centurysynchronised with S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Niẓām al-Dīn Awliyāʾ’s decision to convert themystical movement hitherto confined to individual spiritual salvation into amovement for mass spiritual culture. Since the discussions containedin malfūẓāt took place before people belonging to different sectionsof society and referred to specific problems this literature has assumed greathistoriographical significance.

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Fawāʾidal-Fuʾād

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marked the beginning of anew type of mystical literature, known as malfūẓāt. A recording of theteachings of Niẓām ad-Dīn Awliyāʾ produced around 1307 CE.

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Sharīʿa

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term of reference to God's divine law and is contrasted with fiqh, which refers to itsscholarly interpretations. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam,particularly the Quran and the Hadith. Its rulings assign actions as recommended, permitted, abhorred, and prohibited.

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Iqṭāʿ

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in the Islāmic empire ofthe Caliphate, land granted to army officials forlimited periods in lieu of a regular wage. The iqṭāʿ systemwas established in the 9th century CE to relieve the state treasury wheninsufficient tax revenue and little booty from campaigns made it difficult forthe government to pay army salaries. Land subject to the iqṭāʿ wasoriginally owned by non-Muslims and thus was subject to a special property tax, the kharāj. While the landremained legally the property of its owner, the iqṭāʿ wasa grant of appropriation to a Muslim officer entitling him to collect the kharāj from the owner.

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Jahāngīrī / jahāndārī

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Jahāngīrī refers to the conquest ofthe state, and jahāndārī refers to the management ofthe state; these references are highlighted in Barani’s text on politics calledFatawa-i-Jahandari.

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Maʿarifat

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This literally means "knowledge" and is the term used by Sufi Muslims to describe mystical intuitiveknowledge of spiritual truth reached through ecstatic experiences, rather thanrevealed or rationally acquired. The stages of ma’rifat is described asimperceptible and cannot be communicated by corporeal means - the four stationsare: sharia, tariqa, marifa, haqiqa.

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Jizya

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a per capita yearly tax historicallylevied by Islamic states on certain non-Muslim subjects — dhimmis —permanentlyresiding in Muslim lands under Islamic law. Jizya tax was imposed by theMuslim rulers in India on those who were non-Muslims on the basis that they didnot perform military service for the state. This tax is seen as a measure oftolerance of Mughal emperors. Akbar, who is known for his religious tolerance,rescinded the jiziya and other taxeson non-Muslims. However, Aurangzeb, the radical, reinstated it during hisreign.

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Waḥdat al-wujūd

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Chishti doctrine of unity of being – oneness with god, typically leadingone to the renunciation of material pleasures.

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Ẓawābit

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Mughal law was the ẓawābit (Urdu termfor state law) of medieval India.

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Lodī Dynasty

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was an Afghan Pashtun dynasty that ruled the DelhiSultanate from 1451 to 1526. It was founded by Bahlul Khan Lodi whenhe replaced the Sayyid dynasty. Their reign finally ended after being defeatedby Babur from Kabul, founder of the Mughal Empire.

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Sher Shāh Sūrī

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founder of the SurEmpire in North India, with its capital at Delhi. An ethnic Pashtun,Sher Shah took control of the Mughal Empire in 1540. During hisfive-year rule from 1540 to 1545, he set up a new civic and militaryadministration, issued the first Rupiya and reorganized the postalsystem of India.

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Rājput

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the art of the independent Hindu feudal states in India, as distinguished from the court art of the Mughalemperors. Whereas Mughal painting was contemporary instyle, Rājput was traditional and romantic

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Guru Nanak

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the founder of Sikhism and the first of the ten SikhGurus. He travelled far and wide teaching people the message of one Godwho dwells in every one of His creations and constitutes the eternal Truth. Heset up a unique spiritual, social, and political platform based on equality,fraternal love, goodness, and virtue. Guru Nanak's words are registered in theform of 974 poetic hymns in the holy text of Sikhism, the Guru Granth Sahib.

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Nāthayogīs

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Shaivism-related group ofmonks who emerged by about 13th-century, sometimes called Jogi orsimply Yogi. The Nath tradition is a syncretic Yoga and Vedanta schoolsof Hindu philosophy based Shaiva tradition, that reveres Shiva and Dattatreya.Nath Shaiva monastic organization was one of those Hindu monk groups thatmilitarized and took up arms following the Muslim conquest of India, to resistpersecution.

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Bābā Farīd

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13th century Chishtisaint whose story signifies the unifying quality of the Chishti sect. Heconverted many Jats, who were mainly farmers, to Islam. He did this not throughproselytizing or force but through tolerance and emphasizing the similaraspects of Islam and other religions. He regarded himself as independent of thecourt.

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Samāʿ

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a Sufi ceremonyperformed as dhikr. Samāʿ means "listening", while dhikr means"remembrance". These rituals often include singing, playinginstruments, dancing, recitation of poetry and prayers, wearing symbolicattire, and other rituals. It is a particularly popular form of worship in the Chishti order.

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Karāma

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“(saintly) marvel, wonder,or miracle” in Arabic (pl. karāmāt). As a technical term in the Muslim religioussciences both its etymology and usage fall close to the Greek charisma(ta) in the sense of denoting themiraculous, wondrous, or preternatural feats which God freely grants certainelect individuals the capacity to perform through the munificent generosity (karāma) of his divine favor.

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Jāgīrdār system

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form of land tenancy developed in India during the time of Muslimrule (beginning in the early 13th century) in which the collection of therevenues of an estate and the power of governing it were bestowed on anofficial of the state. Thesystem was introduced by the early sultans of Delhi. Being feudalistic incharacter, it tended to enfeeble the central government by setting upquasi-independent baronies.

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Man Singh I

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Raja of Amber, a state later known as Jaipur. He was a trusted general of the Mughal emperor Akbar, who included him among the Navaratnas, or the nine (nava) gems (ratna) of the royal court.Abū al-Faẓl was another. ManSingh was a Hindu and a devotee of Krishna.

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Shāh Jahān

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Mughal emperor of India (1628–58) who built the TajMahal. Shah Jahān’s reign was notable for successesagainst the Deccan states. At his firstcapital, Agra, he undertook the building of two great mosques, the Motī Masjid(Pearl Mosque) and the Jāmiʿ Masjid (Great Mosque), as well as the superbmausoleum known as the Taj Mahal.

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Bāburnāma

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the name given to the memoirsof Ẓahīr-ud-Dīn MuḥammadBābur (1483–1530), founder of the Mughal Empire and a thrice-great-grandson of Timur. Bābur was an educated Timurid and his observations and comments in his memoirs reflectan interest in nature, society, politics and economics. His vivid account ofevents covers not just his life, but the history and geography of the areas he lived in and their flora and fauna, as well as the people with whom he came into contact.

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Daulatabad

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a 14th-century fort city in Maharashtra state of India. Starting 1327, it famouslyremained the capital of Tughluqdynasty, under Muhammadbin Tughluq (r. 1325-1351), who also changed its name, and forciblymoved the entire population of Delhi for two years before it was abandoned for lack of waterand Tughluq was constantly known to shift the capital from Delhi to Daulatabadand Daulatabad to Delhi.

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IbnBattuta

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a medieval Moroccan traveler and scholar, who iswidely recognised as one of the greatest travelers of all time. He isknown for his extensive travels, accounts of which were published in his Travels (Rihla). Over a period of thirty years, Ibn Battutavisited most of the known Islamic world as well as many non-Muslim lands.

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Chaitanya

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a spiritual leader who founded Gaudiya Vaishnavism. He is believed by his devotees to be Krishna himself who appeared in the form of His own devotee inorder to teach the people of this world the process of Bhakti and how to attainthe perfection in life. He is considered as the most merciful manifestation ofKrishna.

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Krishna

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major Hindu deity worshiped in a variety of different perspectives. Krishna isrecognized as the SvayamBhagavan (Sanskrit theological term for theconcept of absolute representation of God as Bhagavan) in his own right or as the absoluteincarnation of Lord Vishnu.

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Chittor

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ChittorFort or Chittorgarh is one of the largest forts in India.

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ʿilm

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Knowledge, especially of fiqh and kalām. ʿIlm, of allkinds, has particularly high status in Islam, because a strong doctrine ofcreation (all things coming from God.

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ʿālim

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An educated scholar of Islamic law; a member of the ulema class.