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168 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What does Strinati argue? |
-The media are largely responsible for the creation of popular culture. -Through TV and other media the world has become consumer-orientated -Popular culture feeds this obsession with designer advertisements -Consumption as such plays a key role in Popular culture |
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What does Adorno argue? |
-Popular culture is a way of socializing into a passive unquestioning set of values -People become obsessed with trivia above real issues -An emphasis on consumption creates a false psychological need(pressure to buy what we cant afford) -Companies become richer , high class see popular culture as inferior, 'mind numbing' |
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What does Bourdieu argue? |
The distinction between high and popular culture, and how worthy they are, lies in the power of the group who support and access them. Therefore high culture is simply the culture of the higher economic classes which does not necessarily make it better. |
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Where/Who was Simpsons study? |
(Norms of older gay men in Manchester) -Interviewed in 'The Village' |
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What were his general findings?(Simpson) |
-Found this was a place gay men could be overtly gay and feel ownership of an area-Gay men accepted majority of public places/life assumed heterosexuality |
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What were the norms in 'hetereospaces' and 'The Village' (Simpson) |
Norms in hetereospaces were degaying -changed their clothing -language -constantly self surveilling to ensure they did not contravene with the rules of the heterospace. In the Village a different set of norms relaxed overtly gay identity expressed.Might include dressing up,focus on body ie muscle tone,erotic playfulness. |
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What did Lury identify? |
The five features of consumer culture: 1.a wide range of products 2. Shopping seen as a leisure pursuit 3.Different forms of shopping available (online) 4.Being in debt is accepted as norm 5.The packaging and promotion of goods is a big buisness |
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What does Ritzer argue? |
MCDONALIZATION means local cultures are disappearing under pressure from fast food restaurants , the negative impact is that culture becomes homogeneous (the same around the world). |
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Where/who was Backs study? |
Young white people in two council estates in South London. |
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What were Les Backs general finding? |
New hybrid identities emerging among these young people in these council flats (white,asain ,black) |
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How come these young people were playing with hybrid identities? (Back) |
These young people are in a transitional stage where they had a great deal of opportunity to construct new identities. Their cultures are not fixed traditions which they must follow slavishly. |
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What does he mean by hybrid identities? (Back) |
These children try out new cultural 'masks',experiment with new roles and play with different styles,meanings, and symbols in all sorts of unexpected ways. Back found a great deal of interracial friendship,interaction and cultural borrowing from other groups ie. slang,music(reggae and hiphop) . |
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What was the result of these hybrid identities?(Back) |
The new identities which were being forged brought black and white people closer together and helped to blur the divisive lines of ethnic groups. |
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What does Hobsbawn argue? |
"identity is like the 'shirts' that we choose to wear rather than the 'skin we are born with". This suggests that we are free to construct our identity from a range of consumer choices and that we are less bound by constraints such as class, gender, and ethnicity from the past. |
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What does MacInnes argue? |
There is no gene or brain pattern which make men incapable of ironing,shopping,changing nappies or expressing emotions, There is none which stops women running governments or multinational corporations,flying fighter places,abusing children or committing murder.It is society which explains why women do more of some things and men do more of others. |
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What do McRobbie and Garber argue? |
Parents treat girls differently to boys, giving more sanctions to girls if they misbehave than boys. Boys are given more freedom while girls are controlled more closely this leads to what they call bedroom culture. |
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What is 'bedroom subculture' (McRobbie and Garber) |
This is where girls are forced to spend more time indoors for 'safety' than boys, and their key influences become media in contrast to boys who may be allowed out to play. |
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What does Furedi describe when discussing the role of parents historically? |
He describes a change in the role of parents in recent years. Traditionally 'good' parents tried to take care of and stimulate their children. Nowadays they often see their main task as protecting their children from danger (accidents,pedos,bullies). |
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What does Furedi argue? |
Furedi argues that parents have become paranoid . He thinks the risk of harm to children has been exaggerated and the new accent on protection is unhealthy.Children are shepherded from place to place by anxious parents. All sorts of risks - school trips, rough sports- are closed off to them. |
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What does Furedi argue is a result of the current parenting style. |
This paranoid parenting prevents children from developing a healthy sense of adventure. |
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What point of view does Murray argue from? (Primary socialisation) |
The New Right perspective |
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What does Murray argue? (Primary socialisation) |
Murray argues that single parents families are 'inadequate socialisers' because they do not have two role models, and the lack of father figure (90% of spf are female headed) is destructive for children as women cant discipline their children as well as men. |
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How does Murray relate his points on parenting to the underclass (Primary socialisation)? |
Murray suggests that these spf are at the heart of the 'underclass' that has appeared in the inner city. |
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What is the underclass (Murray)? (Primary socialisation) |
A group of people living in inner city areas which supposedly socialise their children into a culture revolving around crime and delinquency,anti-authority,anti-work, and anti-family life. |
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What general New Right view linked to the 'underclass' also discuss spf? |
-Teenage girls deliberately get pregnant in order to obtain state benefits -There is a connection between spf,educational underachievement, and delinquency -Underclass children may lack self-discipline and be emotionally-disturbed. -African Caribbean crime and urban riots might be due to 'inferior' socialisation in one-parent families. |
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What does Howard Becker argue? (Interactionist) |
Labels likely lead to us behaving as we have been labeled and thus conforming to the expectations. This is called self fulfilling prophecy as the labeller assumes that they were correct all along, as their prophecy seems to have come true. Labeling can be positive and negative. |
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Where/Who was Adler and Adlers study? |
A group of white middle class children in the US. |
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What were their general findings? (Adler and Adler) |
-The peer group was enormously important in the lives of these pre-adolescent children. -Being popular and having friends made children feel good about themselves, social isolation did the opposite |
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What did they describe? (Adler and Adler) |
-Friendship groups shifted and changed as children moved in and out. -Over time a hierarchy develops between groups, and within groups. -Those with higher status acted as role models for their peers, as friends started to imitate their behavior,such as clothing and styles of speech. -Friendship cliques exercise their power by accepting some and rejecting others. |
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What/Who did Hey Study? |
Hey studies notes sent in classrooms and listened to interactions between teenage girls. |
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What were Hey's general findings? |
Teenage girls excluded and insulted peers which were not conforming to expectations. Cliques tended to form among those of the same social class.They involve a core of best friends and some who move in and out of favor with the core groups.There is much jostling and negotiation within these groups with some actin in competition with other for the company of a favored partner. |
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How did the two class groups interact? (Hey) |
Working class girls called each other slags if their behavior was seen as too promiscuous and so their sexual behavior was controlled via this sanction. Middle class girls have more freedom and autonomy in terms of sexual behaviors but often seen as 'boffins' and unattractive sexually by working class girls. Working class girls are seen as dangerous and excluding by middle class girls who reject their overly feminine-sexual behavior. |
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What/Who did Sewelll study? |
disaffected African-Caribbean youth in British inner cities. |
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What was his main argument? (Sewell) |
Peer group pressure is extremely influential in shaping ethnic identity among disaffected African-Caribbean youth in British inner cities.An is probably partly responsible for educational underachievement and the high levels of exclusion found in this group. |
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How does Sewell explain how peer pressure affects these youths in this way? |
The African-Caribbean male identity is focused on being 'hyper-male' and 'gangster' in the eyes of their peers. He argues that this often compensates for a lack of a father figure in the lives of many of these teenagers. The mass media contributes to this street identity by encourages such youths to subscribe to consumer culture which diverts priorities away from education. |
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What does Walters generally argue? |
A new sexism , 'hyper sexual culture, is becoming increasingly acceptable as women are judged more on their physical appearance. |
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What does a hyper sexual culture entail? (Walters) |
-Women are increasingly portrayed as sexual objects rather than as people with intelligence,desires and needs |
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What factors have lead to hyper sexual culture emerging? (Walters) |
-The media and its overemphasis on sexualised clothing for young girls and programmes about cosmetic surgery. -Sexualised images of women all over the internet and pornography is readily available. -The work of sex workers has become more accepted. |
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What is Walters main concern about this 'hyper sexual culture' |
Increasing pressure on young women to 'look good' which may account for increased instances of eating disorders. Pornography is creating unrealistic expectations of women and sex. |
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What does Baudrillard argue? |
Society focuses upon signs,symbols, and images. Reality (people and things) are relatively unimportant in comparison to 'signifies'. Television is a force to confuse the boundaries between reality and fantasy. We often think television is like a window allowing us to see reality, however Baudrillard suggests that television and its editors manipulate reality, changing it without us recognizing it. |
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What/Who did Butler study? |
A group of teenage Muslim girls in the East Midlands. |
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What did Butler find during her study? |
-Girls moving away from parents traditions -Remained firmly committed to Muslim identity but were modifying it in certain ways -Their experience in Britain had lead them to disregard some ethnic customs (not essential features of Islam) as irrelevant in their lives i.e arranged marriage -Developing a more independent lifestyle which fits British nationality while still maintaining commitment to Islam. |
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What does Butlers study essentially show? |
How religious beliefs can be adapated to fit changing circumstances. |
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What did Bruce essentially argue? |
That religion is sometime used as a cultural defence. |
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What does cultural defence mean (Bruce)? |
Older people may use religion to hold onto traditions from their past in a world changing to quickly. The stability of the norms and values of traditional religions are used by older people as a defence from what they perceive as confusing and unrelenting changing in society around them. |
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What effect does this action of cultural defence have? (Bruce)? |
Religion as a result of cultural defence thus reinforces the norm of conservatism within old age,reinforcing the identity of older people as resistant to change. |
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What does P.A.J. Waddington's research essentially show? |
How canteen culture can help socialise police officers. |
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What is canteen culture? (Waddington) |
Police officers learn from listening to other officers tell 'war stories' and pick up practical advice. |
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What does Waddington argue this canteen culture have the effect of doing? |
Helps officers deal with their stressful job. boosts their occupational self esteem by giving them a 'heroic' identity. It reinforces their sense of 'mission' and celebrates certain values that are more or less essential in police work such as 'macho' emphasis on physical strength and courage. |
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What/Who did Skeggs carry out research on? |
A group of working class women retraining to become health care workers.b |
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What did Skeggs find out? |
That as their training progressed the women were socialized into new behaviors . For example although they wore more feminine attire outside of work they began to realise this was not the norm inside of their new career and adapted their dress code to fit in. |
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What does Skeggs findings show? |
How work can act as an agent of re-socialisation. (We change our norms as a result of being introduced into a new environment with new expectations) |
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What/Who did Renolds study? |
Primary school boys |
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What were Renolds conclusions? |
Peer groups are a strong force in enforcing informal social control. Sometimes the acceptance of one agent is prioritized over another. |
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What were Renolds findings? |
Primary school boys would hide their academic success in order to avoid teasing from peers and fit into the ideal identity of a boy who was good at sport but didn't try nearly as hard in the classroom. |
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What/Who did Skelton study in 'Schooling for boys'? |
A primary school in a deprived area with a notorious reputation for crime in the north east. |
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What were Skeltons findings? |
-The teachers regarded many of the local parents as 'inadequate' so set the school the task of socialising the children properly. -The school attempted to maintain social control through firm measures creating a sort of fortress against violence and theft. -The teachers adopted masculine styles like intimidatory body language to show whos boss. |
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What were Skeltons conclusions? |
-Shows how educationalists may see their job as re-socialising children properly. How this kind of control strategies were in many ways ironically a reflection of the tough' values that were prized in the local community. |
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What does Watson suggest? |
The Muslim hijab is not a symbol of oppression but freedom. Muslim women choose to wear it to give the aces to public buildings and education. |
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What does Gannon argue? |
Older women are discriminated against in terms of their age and their gender. She believes women's status is reduced after the menopause reflecting society's tendency to see women in terms of their sexuality and child bearing usefulness. |
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What did the McPherson report conclude? |
That the police are institutionally racist. (Young black men are 7 times more likely to be stopped ans searched than their white counterparts. |
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What/Who did Goffman study? |
Goffman studied what he called TOTAL INSTITUTIONS, or such as prisons,psychiatric hospitals,army barracks ,monasteries, and boarding schools. |
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What happend in total institutions (Goffman)? |
-All areas of life are controlled,and scheduled (one activity leads to the next) -Clothing and personal items are removed and generic uniform is given to them. -A generic haircut and prison or patient number is intended to strip away any sense of identity. |
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What is the result of people spending time in these 'total institutions' (Goffman)? |
-They become institutionalized and loose ability to deal with life on the outside. -Individuals are mortified (sense of self is stripped away and denied) -Identification of ones own norms and values is slowly stripped away because of lack of control over ones own movements, and permission needed for basic things. |
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What does Roberts argue? (1) |
The upper class is split into 3 interlocking groups the landowning aristocrats,the jetset, and the entrepreneurs. The upper classes have a strong sense of identity. This is because the upper class is 'closed'- Its members tend to be the children of upper class parents. Social closure in the upper class is the result of a shared culture that creates a web of links and contacts. These connections make it difficult for non-members to penetrate the upper class. |
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What does Roberts argue? (2) |
The key elements of the upper class involve education,family ties,social and leisure activities.Upper classes tend to inter-marry because the exclusive lifestyle and experiences of the upper class mean its younger members tend to socialize with other members of the same class. Upper class children are usually educated at top public schools and universities. Throughout education valuable social contacts are made with other young people likely to end up in a position of power and influence. These contacts can prove to be extremely helpful in late life 'the old boy network'. |
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What does Roberts argue? (2) |
Public schools also socialise their pupils into high levels ofself-confidence and an acute sense of their social superiority. During theirsocialisation young members of the upper class are introduced to the exclusive social events that provide adistinctive upper class lifestyle. Often these are based on old aristocratictraditions and provide a sense of ‘real class’. They also provide a circuitwhere further connections and contacts can be made. These events include hunting, shooting,Wimbledon (tennis), etc. |
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What did Gillies conducts a study about? |
parenting and classs |
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What were Gillies findings in general? |
She found big differences between the way middle class and working class people engaged in parenting. |
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How did Middle class parents engage in parenting (Gillies)? |
They used a range of resources to support their children focusing on social skills and education They insisted on the rights of their children's individuality and exceptional abilities or talents to be respected and encouraged. Sometimes at the expense of those against whom their child may be measured. Parents and teachers saw middle class children as in need of protection and nurturing because they share cultural values and common language. |
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How did Working class parents engage in parenting (Gillies)? |
They provided strategies to cope with poverty,low social standing, and vulnerability to emotional and physical abuse and violence. They focused on providing emotional strength and strategies to cope with injustice and hardship. Parents and children viewed middle class children as 'less able' and therefore a 'problem child' |
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What do Goldthorpe and Lockwood argue? |
Since the late 1970s a new working class has developed. Following mass immigration globalization and reduction in manual jobs the working class has reduced in number and seems to have changed in terms of norms and values. |
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What does Willmott and Young argue about traditional working class gender roles. |
Working class have traditional gender roles with a focus on men being breadwinners in masculine jobs like mining and shipbuilding , women often as full time housewives. |
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What did Willmott and Young argue the different components of traditional working class were? |
-Marriage is for life so no divorce -Extended family live nearby with lots of visiting especially among women -They formed close-knit communities with large circles of friends and acquaintances -Strong class identity strengthened by their experience working together to improve wages and working conditions -They made a distinction between 'us' and 'them' (authority). -They sided with trade unions and labor party |
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What does Dunscombe and Marsden argue? |
While gender roles are changing, womenstill take on a triple shift or burdenof work, domestic responsibilities/childcare and emotional support. |
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What does Murray argue? (Class) |
A fourth class exists: The underclass.argues thatover-generous benefits encourage some people to develop a culture, or set ofnorms and values, in which they do not take responsibility for their ownactions and have an expectation that they will be looked after by the state. He presents a very negative view of thisgroup in society. |
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What does Braverman argue? |
This Marxist argues that working inmining or on the factory floor has been replaced by call centres, bars andrestaurants. However, we shouldn’t be fooled into thinking the working classare better off. The place of work maywell be more comfortable and less dangerous but the jobs still carry low pay,status and workers are exploited for the benefit of the business owner. |
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What does Pakulski and Walters generally argue? |
Lifestyles are becoming a central organizing feature of peoples lives and a major source of social and personal identity. |
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What does Pakulski and Walters argue? |
At one time people tended to follow traditional class-based leisure pursuits, the middle class may have enjoyed golf while the working class were more likely to spend their evening greyhound racing. But lifestyles are becoming less and less likely to be based on social class. Nowadays, lifestyles and identities are muchmore diverse and flexible, they are based on individual choice rather thanclass background. For example, we might find it difficult to guess the classbackground of hang-gliders, ballroom dancers or football supporters. |
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What do Clarke and Saunders generally argue? |
Consumption is another threat to class identities and comes from the rise of consumer culture |
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What do Clarke and Saunders argue? (1) |
People may once have built their identities around work and productionbut 21st century lives are more likely to be centred on theirleisure and the things they spend their money on – their consumption. Soidentities may no longer be based on how people earn their money - a matter of occupation and class - but on howthey spend it - a matter of consumerlifestyles. |
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What do Clarke and Saunders argue? (2) |
Consumer goods are important not so much for themselves as for what they say about the tastes and style of the consumers (signifiers). They signal their lifestyles by what they choose to wear, eat, drink, listen to or collect. People are usually aware that they are making a statement about themselves through their consumption habits. These consumption choices express and establish their identity. |
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What did Marshall et al conduct and why? |
A survey to see if ti is really true that class identities have declined. |
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What were Marshall et als results? |
found that about 60 per cent of the samplethought of themselves as belonging to a particular social class, and over 90per cent could place themselves in a class if prompted. |
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What were Marshall et als findings? |
These figures suggest that classidentities manage to survive in spite of competition from lifestyle andconsumer identities. Indeed, Marshall etal argue that class is the most common and powerful source of socialidentity. Other identities may have grown in importance but they have notdisplaced class identities from their central position. |
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What did Marx argue?(1) |
For Marx there wereonly two classes; the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. These two classes arelocked together in a class struggle; they have different wants/needs which cannever be reconciled. The bourgeoisieneed/want workers to work hard for low wages, the proletariat want/need to workfewer hours for higher wages. This iswhat Marx calls the inherentcontradiction of capitalism, as it is capitalism which pits these groupsagainst each other. |
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What did Marx argue?(2) |
This is why for Marx the issues of inequality within capitalism could never be resolved; the answer for Marx was clear, communism. Within communism everything is owned collectively and wages are the same for all. This makes the classes equal and should, according to Marx, bring about a classless society. Marx believed that this would be brought about by a working class revolution which would spread throughout the world. |
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What does was Mead's study and significance? |
MargaretMead (1935) showed the cultural flexibility of gender in her famous studyof three New Guinea tribes (New Guinea is a set of islands in the PacificOcean). Among the Arapesh both sexes were gentle and submissive ('feminine'), amongthe Mundugamor both sexes were aggressive, rough and competitive ('masculine')and among the Tchambuli the gender roles seemed the reverse of Westernstereotypes (women made the sexual advances, and men enjoyed a good gossip). |
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What is the first process Oakley identified? (M) |
Manipulation consists of encouraging behaviour that is seen asstereotypically acceptable for the child’s gender and discouraging behaviourthat is not considered the norm. |
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What is an example of Oakley's first process identified? |
Examples could include: laughing if a boy gets muddy or congratulating him for attempting something adventurous, but discouraging a girl from doing anything that would involve getting muddy or dirty, or from attempting something adventurous. |
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What is the second process Oakley identified? (C) |
Canalisation refers to the way in whichparents channel children’s interestsinto toys and activities that are seen as ‘normal for that sex’. Boys will beencouraged to play with action figures, guns and football, while girls areexpected to play with dolls and toy ovens. |
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What are Oakley's concerns regarding these processes? |
Asa feminist, Oakley is concerned that these processes can have a crucial role ingender identity. Children’s parents and other adults act as role models, if they see their motherdoing most of the housework and cooking then this will be an influence on howthey perceive their own roles in the future. |
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What do other feminists comment on Oakley's study? |
Many feminists argue this is one way in whichpatriarchy is continued throughout time and across different societies. |
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What did Sharpe conduct? |
Sue Sharpe conducteda study called ‘Just Like a Girl’ (1994) on the changing attitude of girlstowards education.Sharpecarried out research on girls ambitions in the 1970s and then did it again witha new set of 15 year old girls in the 1990s. |
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What were Sharpe's results? |
Sharpefound the girls’ priorities in the 1970s to be ordered in importance of love,marriage, husbands, children then careers and jobs. By the 1990s these had changed to careers,love/relationships, travel/leisure and then children. |
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What could we argue lead to these changes occurring (Sharpe)? |
Perhaps we could argue that feminist values haveinfluenced society and many dramatic legal and social changes areoccurred. |
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What were Tunstall's general findings? |
Tunstall (1983) found that mediarepresentations in the 60s and 70s show abias because they put an emphasis on women’s domestic, sexual, consumeristand marital activities to the exclusion of all else. |
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What were Tunstall's findings? |
Women were depicted as busy housewives,as content mothers, as eager consumers and as sex objects. This does indeedindicate bias because, although similar numbers of men are fathers and husbandsthe media has much less to say about these male roles; men are seldom presentednude, nor is their family or marital status quoted in irrelevant contexts. Justas men’s domestic and marital roles are ignored, the media also ignore thatwell over half of British adult women go out to paid employment, and that manyof both their interests and problems are employment-related. Further researchhas been conducted into television, magazines and advertising and found highlystereotypical images of women as sex objects leading many to argue that themedia is a patriarchal institution. |
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What is Connells main argument? |
Untilrecently, most British men were socialised into what he calls hegemonic masculinity. |
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What is hegemonic masculinity? (Connell) |
Theyare expected to be financial providers and authority figures in the home,dispensing wisdom and firm discipline to their wives and children. Men wereexpected to be individualistic, aggressive, risk-taking and ambitious. Theywere not expected to participate in domestic work or to express their emotions. |
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What is Complicit masculinity? |
Complicit masculinity refers to those men whobelieve that men and women should share roles within families. |
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What is Subordinate masculinity? |
Subordinatemasculinityrefers to homosexual men. Although there is greater tolerance and acceptance ofhomosexuality in society today, it still generally remains a subordinate andstigmatised identity. |
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What does Connel argue concerning these identified types of masculinity? |
Marginalised masculinity is a response to the fact that the traditionalmasculine identity of male protector/breadwinner may be changing. Working-classmen in particular can see that economic recession has led to the decline ofmanual work and to large-scale unemployment. They can see that women are takingmany of the new jobs. So Connell identifies new types of masculinity but accepts thathegemonic masculinity is still the most powerful form. |
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What does Mac and Ghail argue? |
MairtinMac an Ghaill (1996) describes the insecurity faced by some working-classmen as a ‘crisis of masculinity’.Their traditional masculine identity is no longer relevant yet they are notcomfortable with alternative male identities. Men may respond to this ‘crisis’in a number of ways including becoming depressed, fatalistic (giving up),turning to crime or domestic violence or by adopting new identities. |
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What does Wilkinson generally argue? |
MairtinMac an Ghaill (1996) describes the insecurity faced by some working-classmen as a ‘crisis of masculinity’.Their traditional masculine identity is no longer relevant yet they are notcomfortable with alternative male identities. Men may respond to this ‘crisis’in a number of ways including becoming depressed, fatalistic (giving up),turning to crime or domestic violence or by adopting new identities. |
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What does Wilkinson argue? |
She argues that more womenat work than ever before has led to the feminisationof the workplace and to arevolution in women’s ambitions. Family commitments no longer have priority in women’swives. Working and pursuing a career are now the defining feature of youngwomen’s identity and self-esteem. Women are more willing to take risks, live life ‘onthe edge’, and seek pleasure and fun. Many of them reject the notion ofseparate spheres for men and women. They have discarded the stereotypes of‘male breadwinners’ and ‘female homemakers’. Most of these women have grown upassuming that sexual equality is their birthright. - |
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What did Alexander conduct on who? |
Clare Alexander (1996) wrote a book called ‘The Art of Being Black’ and conducted a study on a group of blackyouths in London. |
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What were Alexanders findings? |
The youths she studied felt there were ‘symbolic markers’ of being black,meaning certain things such a distinctive walk were representative of beingblack. They felt there is something about certain styles of dress, music, evenwalking and talking, that make them instantly recognisable as ‘Black’. Wearingbaggy jeans, low on the waist, distinctive handshakes, rap music and the use ofslang were ways in which the black youth identified with black culture. |
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What were Alexanders conclusions? |
She concluded thatthere are many different ways of being Black. Constructing a Black identity isan ‘art’ that needs a great deal of work and effort. |
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What did Venkatesh conduct? |
Sudhir Venkatesh (2008) wrote a book called ‘Gang Leader For a Day’. He went to study black youth in a project building (poor social housing).Venkatesh embarked on a study of the everyday life of the housing projectswhich eventually lasted for eight years. |
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What happend to Venkatesh? |
He found himself held hostage overnight bymembers of the ‘Black Kings’, a crack-dealing gang who thought he might be amember of a rival Mexican gang (Venkatesh was actually an Indian).. Three years into the research Venkatesh evengot to be gang leader for the day after he suggested to JT that he didn’t domuch for all the money he earned. JT responded by inviting Venkatesh to managethe gang for 24 hours under his strict supervision. |
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What were Venkatesh's findings? (1) |
Venkatesh found that the housing projects werelargely controlled by street gangs which made their money not only by dealingin drugs (mainly ‘crack’), but also through extortion, gambling, prostitution,and selling stolen property. Venkatesh noted that the gang was highly lucrativein netting small fortunes for the bosses of the various gangs such as JT. |
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What were Venkatesh's findings? (2) |
Venkatesh noted the gang was displaying ‘outlaw capitalism’ meaning the gangs were like a company except doing illegal acts. He observed that the hierarchy of the gangs resembled mainstream companies, in mainstream society people work hard to impress bosses and get promoted and Venkatesh noted that same thing happening in the gang. Venkatesh found that gangs like the Black Kings virtually ran the housing projects and did so in collusion with the official managers of the buildings as the local police were very reluctant to enter the projects. |
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What did Jacobson conduct a study on? |
JessicaJacobson (1998) conducteda study on religion and how this shaped identity among British Pakistani youth. |
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What were Jacobsons general findings? |
Shefound a verystrong social boundary between Muslims and non-Muslims, arising from the natureof Islamic thought and the way it provides clear rules for how Muslims shouldlive. Thenature of Islam, Jacobson points out, does not encourage exclusivity. |
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What were Jacobsons findings? |
Jacobson’sfound the youth behaved in ways that reinforced the distinctiveness of theirMuslim identities. Even young Muslims who mix socially with non-Muslims tendedto keep what Jacobson calls, ‘psychologicaldistance’ because non-Muslims didn’t practice the same cultural rituals. Theimportance of these boundaries between Muslim and non-Muslim did not howevermean that young Muslims retreated into an exclusively Muslim social world. Therespondents expected and wanted to work, study and socialise outside as well asinside Muslim circles. |
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What did Ghuman outline? |
Paul Ghuman (1999) outlines some ofthe socialisation practices of the first generation of Asian parents. |
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What did Ghuman outline? (Norms and Values) |
Childrenwere brought up to be obedient, loyal toand respectful of their elders and community around them. Social conformitywas demanded and children learned to be inter-dependent rather thanindividualistic which was seen as a threat to the authority of the head of thefamily. |
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What did Ghuman outline? (Lifestyle choices) |
Thechoice of education was to be leftin the hands of their parents who were considered to know best the interests oftheir children and their future. The choiceof marriage partner was thought to be best left to parents and childrenwere taught the drawbacks of dating and courting, the dangers of pre-maritaland promiscuous sex, and the perceived disadvantages of love marriages. |
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What did Ghuman outline? (Traditions) |
Religious training was considered to be veryimportant because it reinforced the above and stressed humility rather thanself-pride and assertiveness. The roleof the mother tongue is seen as crucial in maintaining links betweengenerations and in the transmission of religious values. Children thereforetend to be bi-lingual, and are often able to use both the mother language, e.g.Urdu, Punjabi, Gujerati and Hindi, and English inter-changeably. |
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Were did Hewitt conduct his study? |
adeprived working class area ofLondon. |
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What were Hewitt's findings? |
Theyfelt a deep sense of unfairness because every culture seemed to be celebratedexcept their own. They were constantly frustrated whenever they tried to adoptsymbols and emblems of white or ‘English’ cultural identity. |
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What did Hewitt argue in regard to his findings? |
Hewitt argues that waysmust be found of allowing white people to be proud of their own culturaltraditions. But this should not be done in a racist manner that excludes peoplefrom ethnic minorities from claiming an English identity too. |
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Who did Modood et al conduct their study on? |
Tariq Modood et al (1994) conducted astudy of a sample of African Caribbean’s living in Birmingham in order to chartchanges in their culture over time. |
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What were Modood et al's findings? |
He found that second and third generationblacks were less religious than the first generation who were predominantlyChristian (Pentecostal). There was less use of cultural dialects and languageand most second and third generation blacks considered themselves as blackrather than West Indian like the first generation. . He found that second and third generationblacks were less religious than the first generation who were predominantlyChristian (Pentecostal). There was less use of cultural dialects and languageand most second and third generation blacks considered themselves as blackrather than West Indian like the first generation. |
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Who did Ballard conduct his study on? |
Roger Ballard (1994) Ballard recognisesthat there are some major differences between Asian and mainstream cultures buthe found that young Asians manage to navigate between them with relative ease. |
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What were Ballards findings? |
They simply switch codes – in their parents’ homethey fit in to Asian cultural expectations, but outside the home they blendinto mainstream lifestyles. Few find great difficulties in handling this codeswitching. Ballard calls it cultural navigation, which describesthe ease with which people can navigate different cultural norms and valuespresent in society. Of course, being teenagers, sometimes there is frictionwith their parents. They occasionally ‘act Western’ at home as an expression oftheir independence. Outside the home they may ‘act Asian’ as an act of defianceagainst the racist attitudes of non-Asians but for the most part, young Asianshandle the two cultures with few problems. |
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Who was Johals study on? |
Johal (1998) focused on second- and third-generationBritish-Asians. |
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What were Johals findings? |
Hefound that they have a dual identityin that they inherit an Asian identity and adopt a British one. This results inAsian youth adopting a ‘white mask’in order to interact with white peers at school or college, but emphasisingtheir cultural difference whenever they feel it is necessary. A mix of different identities in Britain canbe attributed to multiculturalism; this can be seen with hybrid identities suchas Blasian and Brasian. Blasian refers to those with a mix of black and Asianidentity while brasian refers to those with a British and Asian identity. |
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What did Trevor Phillips argue? |
Britainwas in danger of ‘sleepwalking into segregation’. He feared this because various ethnic groupswere drifting further apart. |
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What was Foxs book? |
Kate Fox (2005) wrote a book called‘Watching the English’, where shesuggest the English are a distinctive and particular breed. |
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What does Fox suggest? |
Foxnotes that one of the reasons why the English talk about weather so muchespecially with strangers is because this is a language code. When a person makes a comment about theweather to a stranger, if we could out a subtitle underneath to understand itsmeaning it would say ‘be my friend’. When the stranger says yes I agree, horrible weather isn’t it, typicalEngland, they are actually saying ‘yes I will be your friend’. In this instance, the English are a shy andprudish people who employ a long winded and complicated set system of conversation codes. Seeing as we have been socialised intothese codes of behaviour, we understand and feel comfortable using them,however people from other nations may well find them confusing, leading Fox toconclude that we have hidden rulesfor English behaviour. |
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What does Sadar generally argue? |
Sadar (2002) argues that the worldis going through a ‘global identitycrisis’.Sadar argues that lots ofEnglish traditions are becoming outdated to the people living here now and thatwe should focus on getting a confident identity based on diversity and what wehave in common. |
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What does Sadar argue his point because of? |
Manyof the traditional ideas of east v west or communism v capitalism that existedhave broken down since the end of the Cold War (1990). Britain had the largestempire in the world as it took control of territories (colonies) all over theworld from the late 16th to early 18th century. At its height, the empire covered ¼ ofcountries and 1/5 of the world’s total population. However independence,conflict and war reduced the empire over time. Nowadays,Britain finds itself to be a much smaller nation in a world of growing superpowers like Russia, USA, India, North Korea and leaves us looking for alliesand the choice to be either more American or European. מ; |
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What does Bradley generally argue? |
Bradley suggests there are five main life stages. These are childhood, youth, young adulthood, midlife andold age. |
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What does Bradley argue? |
Whilstthere may be broad agreement on the existence of these groups or generations (an age group with a commonexperience) it is not clear at which age each begins and ends, nor exactlywhich norms and values each group has. Within each age group there will be divisions such as gender, ethnicity andsocial class. These divisions may be more powerful than age in terms of whichpeople they identify with.Theagents of socialisation may have varying effects on different age groups.For example,Youthhave also been targeted by the media, whilst the media has been accused ofignoring the older generation |
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What did the TheMarxists group the CCCS (The Centrefor Contemporary Cultural Studies) want to study and why? |
They wantedto look at how working class youth were rebelling against capitalism in the1970s. They believed that working class youth subcultures could be analysed orinterpreted to understand their underlying meaning (a process called semiotics). |
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What were the CCCS's arguments as a result? |
They believed members ofmod and skinhead youth subcultures in the East End of London dressed in anaggressive way (Doc Martin boots, tattoos, piercings) to symbolise theirdefence of their territory which they believed was under attack from ethnicminority immigrants. The CCCS argued that the style of mods and rockers wasused as a resistance to the erosion of the working class traditions and thedeclining job opportunities in their community. |
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What was Stahn Cohen study about? |
Stan Cohen (1972) wrote a bookcalled folks devils and moral panics, whichwas a study of mods and rockers and the media.. Disturbances involving mods and rockers tookplace in Clacton and Brighton in 1964. |
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What did Stahn Cohen argue (1)? |
Cohennoted that the media (newspapers) exaggerated the level of crime and deviancethat happened on those days. Media coverage led toconsiderable public concern with mods and rockers. This set in motion a deviancyamplification spiral, meaning the police made more arrests, the media reported more deviance, and young peoplewere more likely to identify witheither mods or rockers. Further disturbancesfollowed on subsequent Bank Holidays. Cohen claimed that the reaction of the mediato events in Clacton generated a moral panic. |
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What did Stahn Cohen argue (2)? |
The mods and rockers, and other youth groups were singledout as 'folk devils, meaning a person or group ofpeople who are portrayed in folklore or the media as outsiders and deviant, andwho are blamed for crimes or other sorts of social problems. Cohen concludedthat themods and rockers served as symbols of what was wrong with youth and they were blamedfor societies problems (scapegoats –somebody blamed for problems – Jews/WW2). iral |
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Why was Stahn Cohens study signifcant? |
Cohens work is hugelyinfluential as he was the first sociologist to identify the way in which themedia create rather than simply report news. Marxists have used his research toimply that the media is controlled by the ruling class and youth groups areused as scapegoats. |
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What was Blaikies argument? |
Blaikie identifies middle age as being associated with the following three criteria: maturity, independence, and responsibility. Middle age people are expected to demonstrate these in all aspects of their lives, they are likely to have high status at work and demonstrate responsibility, and they are more likely to live independently or have a family. |
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What are criticisms of Blaikie? |
Middle age is more difficult to study as its less dramatic than being young or old. This time period is not associated with disadvantage but privilege. Blaikie's points may be hard to generalize to a group which is very diverse and not exactly defined. |
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What do Hockey and James argue in regards to their key word? |
-Old people are treated like children by their families (INFANTILISATION) in a role reversal in which parents become dependent on children. -They are spoken to differently and people take control of their lives -24 hour care may be needed like that of a child if they suffer from Alzheimers |
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What do Hockey and James say about old peoples homes they visited? |
-Infantilisation high in homes were elderly were afforded low status and seen as 'simple'. Staff gave out pocket money, and controlled bed times and meal choices, just as a parent may do a child life. |
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What did Philipson et al identify has changed in the social life of old people in the past 50 years? |
-Over the last 50 years there has been a shiftfrom old age being experienced within the family group to old age being shapedwithin personal communities in which friendsmay be as important as immediate family. -Increasing numbers of older peoplelive alone, or just with a partner, and fewer live in households containingmore than one generation. -Children and other relatives often lived nearby, butwere more dispersed and many older people named friends and neighbours amongthose they were closest to. |
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What did Philipson et al identify has changed in the general life of older people in the past 50 years? |
In one area older people seemed to have lost the strong sense of community it had had in the 1950s, so that somepeople were afraid to go out, especially at night. The main leisure activitytoday is reading, gardening andlooking after the house, while television has become important for many olderpeople. People are active in old age, but the activity is often in a particularand narrow social world. Work becomes focused unpaid work – both domestic and voluntary work. The contributionof older people to the charity and voluntary sector was significant both interms of their value to wider society and the importance of such work to theindividuals’ sense of self-worth and identity. |
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Possible criticism of Philipson et al and Hockey and James? |
Many older peopleexperience ageism whichrefers to stereotyping and discriminating against individuals or groups on thebasis of their age. This is especially acute in employment as older people are forcedto retire at 65 when they may well enjoy and offer a lot to companies for manyyears past this age. |
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What does Featherstone and Hepworth argue? |
-Old people are expected to act in accordance with stereotypes of old age like knitting by fire -Increasing numbers deciding to cast of 'mask of the old' and refuse to conform to these identities but choose lively activities like exotic holidays, and salsa dancing. -This ability to be lively does depend on consumer power which middle class older people can afford while working class pensioners in some case suffer poverty in later life. |
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What are criticisms of Featherstone and Hepworth? Possibly also Philipson and Hockey and James. |
In the past old people understood the norms associated with being old and were respected for their role in society. Since the 1980's in western societies there is a cult of youth as society teaches us to celebrate and preserve youth as if it was more precious than gold. There is a huge array of projects to aid this preserving. Old age is often pictured as something to be pitied , the media circulates images of old people as physically unattractive,sexually inactive, and chronically ill. |
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What does Shakespeare argue commenting on the medical model? |
Disabled people are often socialized into seeing themselves as victims with their disability defining them, thus creating 'victim mentality' or learned helplessness. (The lack of power or control a person feels when they have a disability) |
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What does Shakespeare argue in terms of the disabled identity? |
-There are major obstacles to forming a positive disabled identity. -Disabled people are often isolated from one another so forming a strong collective identity is difficult. -There is a lack of positive disabled role models in public life and media -Disability or impairment in a largely able-bodied society leads to reactions of pity,avoidance and awkwardness |
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What is a criticism of Shakespeare? |
Murugami argues that a disabled person also has the ability to construct a self-identity that accepts their impairment but is independent of it.· Their self-identity is based on what they are able to do, rather thanin terms of their disability. So they see themselves as a person first, and seetheir disability as just one of their characteristics. |
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What does Goffman do/study? |
Conducted a study about stigmatized identities and the idea that people see themselves negatively when other people have this perception of them. |
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What does Goffman argue? |
Other peoples negative perception of someone can lead to them see themselves as so, this can lead to 'master status' a position or identity that transcends all other aspects of identity and becomes the defining characteristic by which the individual isjudged. .Furthermore, the individual may see themselves first and foremost in terms oftheir impairment or master status. |
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What does Scott argue as his main point? |
Observed interaction between blind people and medical professionals -Blind people developed a blind personality. ~( they internalized the expert’sview that they should be experiencing psychological problems in adjusting, learning to rely on sighted people and become dependent on what the expertsexpected them to do) |
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How does Scott explain this 'blind personality'? |
In reality, they weren’t aware of what they could and could not do, they just accepted during socialisation what being blind meant in a western culture and this learned helplessness was internalized. |
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Criticisms of Scott? |
This study isvery deterministic and assumes blindpeople are passive in the process of socialisation. Perhaps those involved in the study chose toseek the comfort and support of the professionals rather than being unawareit’s happening. |
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What example and points does Focault make in regards to the idea sexuality is socially constructed? |
Michel Foucault (1976) gives a clear example ofhow our sexuality is sociallyconstructed. -He suggests that the way sexuality is expressed depends on thediscourses (discussion and debate) presentin society at a particular time. -Fifty years ago homosexuality was thought of as deviant or as an illness,whereas today LGBT is openly discussed. It’s notthat homosexuality didn’t exist but rather that it wasn’t socially accepted soexisted in secret |
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How did the UK transition into more accepting homosexuality (Focault)? |
Homosexuality was made illegal in the UK and punishable by prison. Many homosexual men were subject to shocktreatment or conversion therapy in the 1950s and 60s to cure them of theircondition of homosexuality. Homosexual acts for consenting adults over the ageof 21 were decriminalised in the 1960s. By 1970 homosexuality was no longer defined as a psychiatric conditionby doctors. In a final step towardsequality the age of consent for homosexual couples was dropped to 16 in 2000. Foucaultis right that homosexuality is now a part of public discourse and attitudes andlaws are changing quickly, the most recent change was same sex marriage (March2014) |
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Criticisms of Focault? |
Manysuggest that while sexual identity is a significant source of our identity, formany people other factors like gender, ethnicity and class are moresignificant. |
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What does Rich (Femininst) argue in terms of women's expression of their sexuality?
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-Women’s sexuality is oppressed by men in patriarchal society, throughinstitutions such as marriage, sexual violence and rape and through the sexualobjectification of women. -She uses the term ‘compulsory heterosexuality’ (Women aresocialised into a subordinate + heterosexual role, ensuring availability tomen.) -Womenare not necessarily inherently heterosexual, but that this is forced upon them. |
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What does Rich (Femininst) argue in terms of The lesbian identity and hetereosexuality in women? |
-Lesbian existence is quite distinct from homosexuality in men, with littleevidence of anonymous promiscuity and more focus on empowerment and joy. -Lesbian identity hasbeen written out of existence or constructed as abnormal, since it is a threatto male dominance and power over women. |
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What are criticisms of Rich? |
There is no doubt that in some parts of the UK and in some communities ‘comingout’ as a lesbian is still looked down upon and carries a stigma that can leadto prejudice and discriminatory practices such as bullying in the workplace.However, many suggest that disabled groups and some ethnic groups are moredisadvantaged in modern Britain. |
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What does Hunt argue point out about the relationship between the media and the beauty. |
Stephen Hunt (2001) argues the media recognizes society’s obsession withlooking slim and perpetuate the idea that slimness equals success, health,happiness and popularity. -Advertising is dominated by slim attractiveindividuals, men and women. They areoften used to promote high status consumer goods like cars, holidays etc. andthis gives us the impression that one leads to another and that we want both. |
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What does Hunt argue on the subject of the medias exaggeration of the ideal body type and the relationship this has with lifestyle? |
-There is an industry in people feeling bad about themselves. ( dieting, health, cosmetic surgery and fitness activities) -This industry would not exist if people accept themselves as they are. |
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What are criticisms of Hunt? |
Studieson eating disorders tend to focus on the impact on women and girls because itis more acutely experienced by them, however, there’s a growing concern that this is affecting men and boysand this is under reported due to embarrassment. Walters Hypersexual culture? |
