Sociology Test 1

Front 1

applied sociology

Back 1

the use of sociology to solve problems-from the micro level of family relationships to the macro level of crime and pollution

Front 2

basic (or pure) sociology

Back 2

sociological research whose purpose is to make discoveries about life in human groups, not to make changes in those groups

Front 3

class conflict

Back 3

Marx's term for the struggle between capitalists and workers

Front 4

closed-ended questions

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questions followed by a list of possible answers to be selected by the respondent

Front 5

conflict theory

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a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as being composed of groups competing for scarce resources

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control group

Back 6

the group of subjects not exposed to the independent variable

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dependent variable

Back 7

a factor that is changed by an independent variable

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documents

Back 8

in its narrow sense, written sources that provide data; in its extended sense, archival material of any sort, including photographs, movies, and so on.

Front 9

experiment

Back 9

the use of control groups and experimental groups and dependent and independent variables to test causation

Front 10

experimental group

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the group of subjects exposed to the independent variable

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functional analysis

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a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of various parts, each with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society's equilibrium; also known as functionalism and structural functionalism

Front 12

hypothesis

Back 12

a statement of the expected relationship between variables according to predictions from a theory

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independent variable

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a factor that causes a change in another variable, called the dependent variable

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macro-level analysis

Back 14

an examination of large-scale patterns of society

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micro-level analysis

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an examination of small-scale patterns of society

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nonverbal interaction

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communication without words through gestures, space, silence, and so on

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open-ended questions

Back 17

questions that respondents are able to answer in their own words

Front 18

operational definition

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the ways in which variables in a hypothesis are measured.

Front 19

participant observation (or fieldwork)

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research in which the researcher participates in a research setting while observing what is happening in that setting

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population

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the target group to be studied

Front 21

positivism

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the application of the scientific method to the social world

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random sample

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a sample in which everyone in the target population has the same chance of being included in the study

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reliability

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the extent to which data produce consistent results

Front 24

replication

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repeating a study in order to test its findings

Front 25

research method (or research design)

Back 25

one of six procedures sociologists use to collect data: surveys, participant observation, secondary analysis, documents, experiments, and unobtrusive measures

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respondents

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people who respond to a survey, either in interviews or by self-administered questionnaires

Front 27

sample

Back 27

the individuals intended to represent the population to be studied

Front 28

science

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requires the development of theories that can be tested by research.

Front 29

secondary analysis

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the analysis of data already collected by other researchers

Front 30

social integration

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the degree to which people feel a part of social groups

Front 31

social interaction

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what people do when they are in one another's presence

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social location

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the group memberships that people have because of their location in history and society

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society

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people who share a culture and a territory

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sociological perspective

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understanding human behavior by placing it within its broader social context

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sociology

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the scientific study of society and human behavior

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survey

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the collection of data by having people answer a series of questions

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symbolic interactionism

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a theoretical perspective in which society is viewed as composed of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another

Front 38

theory

Back 38

a general statement about how some parts of the world fit together and how they work; an explanation of how two or more facts are related to one another

Front 39

unobtrusive measures

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ways of observing people who do not know they are being studied

Front 40

validity

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the extent to which an operational definition measures what was intended

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value free

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the view that a sociologist's personal values of biases should not influence social research

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values

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the standards by which people define what is desirable or undesirable, good or bad, beautiful or ugly.

Front 43

variables

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factors thought to be significant for behavior, which vary from one case to another

Front 44

Auguste Comte

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Comte is often credited with being the founder of sociology, because he was the first to suggest that the scientific method be applied to the study of the social world

Front 45

W.E.B. Du Bois

Back 45

Du Bois was the first African American to earn a doctorate at Harvard University. For most of his career, he taught sociology at Atlanta University. he was concerned about social injustice, wrote about race relations, and was one of the founders of the national association for the Advancement of Colored People.

Front 46

Emile Durkheim

Back 46

Durkheim was responsible for getting sociology recognized as a separate discipline. He was interested in studying how social forces shape individual behavior.

Front 47

Laud Humphreys

Back 47

The sociologist carried out doctoral research on homosexual activity. In order to obtain information, he misrepresented himself to his research subjects. When his methods became widely known, a debate developed over his use of questionable ethics.

Front 48

Harriet Martineau

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An English woman who studied British and United States social life and published Society in America decades before either Durkheim or Weber were born.

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Karl Marx

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Marx believed that social development grew out of conflict between social classes; under capitalism, this conflict was between the bourgeoisie-those who own the means to produce wealth-and the proletariat-the mass of workers. His work is associated with the conflict perspective

Front 50

Robert merton

Back 50

Merton contributed the terms manifest and latent functions and latent dysfunctions to the functionalist perspective

Front 51

C. Wright Mills

Back 51

Mills suggested that external influences-or a person's experiences-become part of his or her thinking and motivations and explain social behavior. In the 1950s he urged United States sociologists to get back to social reform. He argued that research without theory is of little value, simply a collection of unrelated facts, and theory that is unconnected to research is abstract and empty, unlikely to represent the way life really is.

Front 52

Talcott Parsons

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Parsons' work dominated sociology in the 1940s-1950s. He developed abstract models of how the parts of society harmoniously work together.

Front 53

Herbert Spencer

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Another early social philosopher, Spencer believed that societies evolve from barbarian to civilized forms. The first to use the expression "the survival of the fittest" to reflect his belief that social evolution depended on the survival of the most capable and intelligent and the extinction of the less capable. His views became known as social Darwinism.

Front 54

Max Weber

Back 54

Among Weber's many contributions to sociology were his study of the relationship between the emergence of the Protestant belief system and the rise of capitalism. he believed that sociologists should not allow their personal values to affect their social research and objectivity should become the hallmark of sociology.

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counterculture

Back 55

a group whose values, beliefs, and related behaviors place its members in opposition to the broader culture

Front 56

cultural diffusion

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the spread of cultural characteristics from one group to another

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cultural lag

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Ogburn's term for human behavior lagging behind technological innovations

Front 58

cultural leveling

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the process by which cultures become similar to one another; especially refers tot he process by which U.S culture is being imported and diffused into other nations

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cultural relativism

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not judging a culture but trying to understand it on its own terms

Front 60

culture

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the language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and even material objects that are passed from one generation the the next

Front 61

culture shock

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the disorientation that people experience when they come in contact with a fundamentally different culture and can no longer depend on their taken-for-granted assumptions about life

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ethnocentrism

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the use of one's own culture as a yardstick for judging the ways of other individuals or societies, generally leading to a negative evaluation of their values, norms, and behaviors.

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folkways

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norms that are not strictly enforced.

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gestures

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the ways in which people use their bodies to communicate with one another

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ideal culture

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the ideal values and norms of a people;the goals held out for them (as opposed to real culture)

Front 66

language

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a system of symbols that can be be combined in an infinite number of ways and can represent not only objects but also abstract thought.

Front 67

material culture

Back 67

the material objects that distinguish a group of people, such as their art, buildings, weapons, utensils, machines, hairstyles, clothing, and jewelry.

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mores

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norms that are strictly enforced because they are thought essential to core values

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negative sanction

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an expression of disapproval for breaking a norm, ranging from a mild, informal reaction such such as a frown to a formal reaction such as a prison sentence or an execution

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new technology

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an emerging technology that has a significant impact on social life

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nonmaterial culture (also called symbolic culture)

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a group's ways of thinking (including its beliefs, values, and other assumptions about the world)and doing (its common patterns of behavior, including language and other forms of interaction)

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norms

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the expectations, or rules of behavior, that develops to reflect and enforce values

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pluralistic society

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a society made up of many different groups

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positive sanction

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a reward or positive reaction for following norms

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sanctions

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expressions of approval or disapproval given to people for upholding or violating norms

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Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

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Edward Sapir's and Benjamin Whorf's hypothesis that language creates ways of thinking and perceiving

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subculture

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the values and related behaviors of a group that distinguish its members from the larger culture; a world within a world

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symbol

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something to which people attach meanings and then use to communicate with others

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symbolic culture

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another term for nonmaterial culture

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taboo

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a norm thought essential for society's welfare, one so strong that it brings revulsion if violated

Front 81

technology

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in its narrow sense, tools; its broader sense includes the skills or procedures necessary to make and use those tools

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value cluster

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a series of interrelated values that together form a larger whole

Front 83

value contradiction

Back 83

values that contradict one another; to follow the one means to come into conflict with the other

Front 84

values

Back 84

the standards by which people define what is desirable or undesirable, good or bad, beautiful or ugly

Front 85

Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf

Back 85

These anthropologists argued that language not only reflects thoughts and perceptions, but that it actually shapes the way a people perceive the world.

Front 86

agents of socialization

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people or groups that affect our self-concept, attitudes, behaviors, or other orientations toward life

Front 87

anticipatory socialization

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because one anticipates a future role, one learns parts of it now.

Front 88

degradation ceremony

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a term coined by Harold Garfinkel to describe an attempt to remake the self by stripping away an individual's self-identity and stamping a new identity in its place.

Front 89

ego

Back 89

Freud's term for a force that balances the id and the demands of society

Front 90

gender socialization

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the ways in which society sets children onto different courses in life because they are male or female

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generalized other

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the norms, values, attitudes, and expectations of people "in general"; the child's ability to take the role of the generalized other is a significant step in the development of a self.

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I

Back 92

Mead's term for the self as subject, the active, spontaneous, creative part of the self

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id

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Freud's term for the individual's inborn basic drives

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life course

Back 94

the stages of our life as we go from birth to death

Front 95

looking-glass self

Back 95

a term coined by Charles Horton Cooley to refer to the process by which our sense of self develops through internalizing other's reactions to us.

Front 96

mass media

Back 96

forms of communication, such as radio, newspapers, movies, and television that are directed to mass audiences.

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resocialization

Back 97

the process of learning new norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors

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self

Back 98

the uniquely human capacity of being able to see ourselves "from the outside";the picture we gain of how others see us

Front 99

significant other

Back 99

an individual who significantly influences someone else's life

Front 100

social environment

Back 100

the entire human environment, including direct contact with others.

Front 101

social inequality

Back 101

giving privileges and obligations to one group of people while denying them to another

Front 102

socialization

Back 102

the process by which people learn the characteristics of their group-the knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, and actions thought appropriate for them.

Front 103

superego

Back 103

Freud's term for the conscience, the internalized norms and values of our social groups

Front 104

take the role of the other

Back 104

putting oneself in someone else's shoes; understanding how someone else feels and thinks and thus anticipating how that person will act.

Front 105

total institution

Back 105

a place in which people are cut off from the rest of society and are almost totally controlled by the officials who run the place.

Front 106

transitional adulthood

Back 106

a period of extended youth during which young people gradually ease into adult responsibilities

Front 107

Patricia and Peter Adler

Back 107

These sociologists have documented how peer groups socialize children into gender-appropriate behavior

Front 108

Charles H. Cooley

Back 108

Cooley studied the development of the self, coining the term the looking-glass self

Front 109

Sigmund Freud

Back 109

Freud developed a theory of personality development that took into consideration inborn drives (id), the internalized norms and values of one's society (superego), and the individual's ability to balance the two competing forces (ego)

Front 110

Erving Goffman

Back 110

Goffman studied the process of resocialization with total institutions.

Front 111

George Herbert Mead

Back 111

Mead emphasized the importance of play in the development of self-esteem in men

Front 112

Jean Piaget

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Piaget studied the development of reasoning skills in children

Front 113

Achieved status

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a position that is earned, accomplished, or involves at least some effort or activity on the individual's part

Front 114

ascribed status

Back 114

a position an individual either inherits at birth or receives involuntarily later in life

Front 115

back stage

Back 115

places where people rest from their performances, discuss their presentations, and plan future performances

Front 116

background assumption

Back 116

a deeply embedded common understanding, of how the world operates and of how people ought to act

Front 117

body language

Back 117

the ways in which people use their bodies, to give messages to others

Front 118

division of labor

Back 118

the splitting of a group's or society's tasks into specialties

Front 119

dramaturgy

Back 119

an approach, pioneered by Erving Goffman, in which social life is analyzed in terms of drama or the stage; also called dramaturgical analysis

Front 120

ethnomethodology

Back 120

the study of how people use background assumptions to make sense out of life

Front 121

face-saving behavior

Back 121

techniques used to salvage a performance (interaction) that is going sour

Front 122

front stage

Back 122

places where we give peroformances

Front 123

Gemeinshaft

Back 123

a type of society in which life is intimate; a community in which everyone knows everyone else and people share a sense of togetherness

Front 124

Gesellschaft

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a type of society dominated by impersonal relationships, individual accomplishments, and self-interest

Front 125

group

Back 125

people who have something in common and who believe that what they have in common is significant; also called a social group

Front 126

impression management

Back 126

people's efforts to control the impressions that other receive of them

Front 127

macrosociology

Back 127

analysis of social life that focuses on broad features of society, such as social class and the relationships of groups to one another; usually used by functionalist and conflict theorists

Front 128

master status

Back 128

a status that cuts across the other statuses that an individual occupies

Front 129

mechanical solidarity

Back 129

durkheim's term for the unity (a shared consciousness) that people feel as a result of performing the same or similar tasks

Front 130

microsociology

Back 130

analysis of social life focusing on social interaction; typically used by symbolic interactionists

Front 131

organic solidarity

Back 131

Durkheim's term for the interdependence that results from the division of labor; people depending on others to fulfill their jobs

Front 132

role

Back 132

the behaviors, obligations, and privileges attached to a status

Front 133

role conflict

Back 133

conflict that someone feels between roles because the expectations attached to one role are incompatible with the expectations of another role

Front 134

role performance

Back 134

the ways in which someone performs a role within the limits that the role provides; showing a particular "style" or "personality"

Front 135

role strain

Back 135

conflicts that someone feels within a role

Front 136

sign-vehicle

Back 136

a term used by Goffman to refer to how people use social setting, appearance, and manner to communicate information about the self

Front 137

social class

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according to Weber, a large group of people who rank close to one another in property power and prestige; according to Marx, one of two groups: capitalists who own the means of production or workers who sell their labor.

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social construction of reality

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the use of background assumptions and life experiences to define what is real.

Front 139

social institution

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the organized, usual, or standard ways by which society meets its basic needs.

Front 140

social integration

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the degree to which members of a group or a society feel united by shared values and other social bonds; also known as social cohesion

Front 141

social interaction

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what people do when they are in one another's presence

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socialization

Back 142

the process by which people learn the characteristics of their group-the knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, norms, and actions thought appropriate for them.

Front 143

social structure

Back 143

the framework (or typical patterns) that surrounds us, consisting of the relationships of people and groups to one another; which give direction to and set limits on behavior

Front 144

status

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the position that someone occupies in a social group

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status inconsistency

Back 145

ranking high on some dimensions of social class and low on others also called status discrepancy

Front 146

status set

Back 146

all the statuses or positions that an individual occupies

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status symbols

Back 147

items used to identify a status

Front 148

stereotype

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assumptions of what people are like, whether true or false

Front 149

teamwork

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the collaboration of two or more people to manage impressions jointly

Front 150

Thomas theorem

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william I. and Dorothy S. thomas' classic formulation of the definition of the situation: "if people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences."

Front 151

Elijah Anderson

Back 151

In a series of books, Anderson has studied the lives of inner city residents (Streetwise and Code of the Streets) and suggests that their world is organized around the same norms and beliefs that characterize our wider society.

Front 152

William Chambliss

Back 152

chambliss used macro and microsociology to study high school gangs and found that social structure and interaction explained the patterns of behavior in these groups.

Front 153

Emile Durkheim

Back 153

Durkheim identified mechanical and organic solidarity as the keys to social cohesion. As societies get larger, they divide up work and this division of labor makes people depend on one another.

Front 154

Harold Garfinkel

Back 154

Garfinkel is the founder of ethnomethodology; he conducted experiments in order to uncover people's background assumptions

Front 155

Erving Goffman

Back 155

Goffman developed dramaturgy, the perspective within symbolic interactionism that views social life as a drama on the stage.

Front 156

Ferdinand Tonnies

Back 156

Tonnies analyzed different types of societies that existed before and after industrialization. He used the terms Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft to describe the two types of societies.

Front 157

case study

Back 157

an analysis of a single event, situation, or individual

Front 158

generalizability

Back 158

the extent to which the findings from one group (or sample) can be generalized or applied to other groups (or populations)

Front 159

interview

Back 159

direct questioning of respondents

Front 160

interviewer bias

Back 160

effects that interviewers have on respondents that lead to biased answers

Front 161

population

Back 161

the target group to be studied

Front 162

qualitative research method

Back 162

research in which the emphasis is placed on observing, describing and interpreting people's behavior

Front 163

quantitative research method

Back 163

research in which the emphasis is placed on precise measurement, the use of statistics and numbers

Front 164

questionnaires

Back 164

a list of questions to be asked of respondents

Front 165

random sample

Back 165

a sample in which everyone in the target population has the same chance of being included in the study

Front 166

rapport

Back 166

a feeling of trust between researchers and the people they are studying

Front 167

self-administered questionnaires

Back 167

questionnaires that respondents fill out

Front 168

stratified random sample

Back 168

a sample from select subgroups has an equal chance of being included in the research

Front 169

structured interviews

Back 169

interviews that use closed-ended questions

Front 170

unstructured interviews

Back 170

interviews that use open-ended questions

Front 171

variable

Back 171

a factor thought to be significant for human behavior, which can vary (or change) from one case to another

Front 172

Laud Humphreys

Back 172

received doctorate but fired for questionable ethics

Front 173

C. Wright Mills

Back 173

argued that research without theory is of little value, simply a collection of unrelated "facts," and theory that is unconnected to research is abstract and empty, unlikely to represent the way life really is.