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137 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Correlation Coefficient
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A measure of the degree of correlation between two variables. Varies from 0.0 (no correlation) to 1.0 (perfect correlation)
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Instinct
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Any behavior that occurs in all normal members of a species without having been learned.
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Feral Children
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The name often applied to children who, because of severe neglect, act as if they were raised in the wild.
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Environmental theories of behavior
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A human's actions, feelings, and lifestyle are a direct product of the environment they have been living in.
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Tabula Rasa
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thesis that individuals are born without built-in mental content and that their knowledge comes from experience and perception.
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Nature vs. Nurture
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debate concerns the relative importance of an individual's innate qualities "nature" versus personal experiences "nurture"
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Heredity
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The process of genetic traits passed on from generation to generation
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Genotype
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The sum total of genetic instructions contained in an organism's genes.
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Phenotype
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The observable organism as it has developed out of the interplay between the genotype and the environment.
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Behavioral Genetics
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A scientific field that attempts to link behavior, especially human behavior, with genetics.
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Sociobiology
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is a synthesis of scientific disciplines which attempts to explain social behavior in animal species by considering the Darwinian advantages specific behaviors may have.
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Rates of Concordance
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the presence of the same trait in both members of a pair of twins. However, the strict definition is the probability that a pair of individuals will both have a certain characteristic, given that one of the pair has the characteristic. For example, twins are concordant when both have or both lack a given trait.
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Identical Twin Separation Studies
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A twin study examines the concordance rates of identical twins having the same trait, especially a disease. This can help determine whether the disease has a genetic cause. Controversial uses of twin data have looked at concordance rates for homosexuality and intelligence.
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Monozygotic
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Twins coming from the same egg.
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Dyzygotic
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Twins that are made from two separate eggs fertilized by two separate sperm.
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Adoption Studies
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Are good examples of testing the nature vs. nurture theory.
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Marc Schuckit
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Conducted studies on the heredity of alcoholism among adoptive children.
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Heredity of Alcoholism
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50% rate of alcoholism if biological parent had been an alcoholic regardless of if their adoptive parents was an alcoholic. Odds of becoming an alcoholic were also 2x higher if an adoptive parent was an alcoholic.
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Human Growth Revolution
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As time moves on in history, humans start becoming taller and becoming larger. Sports teams are the best example of this process.
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National Center on Health Statistics
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Published results showing that men were 3x more likely in 1956-1962 to reach 6ft or taller compared to men in 1906-1915.
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Height Gains
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Happened largely in advanced industrial nations. Large increase in height as compared to a previous generation.
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Obesity Epidemic
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Centers for Disease Control show that American chilren are getting bigger according to their BMI. Texas is most obese state.
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Environmental Suppressors
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Potent capacity of environmental factors to modify genetic potential.
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Life Expectancy Gains
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In 20th century humanity experienced huge gains in life expectancy. Potent changes in socioeconomic conditions affected this.
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Hormones
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Chemical messengers that regulate organs and body functions. Testosterone and estrogen have large impact on moods and behavior.
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Primary vs. Secondary Sex Characteristics
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Primary- Traits such as sexual organs that are required for reproduction.
Secondary- Other traits that can determine one's sex such as growth of hair on the body |
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Anabolic Steroids
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Boost production of testosterone, increase in cellular tissue.
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CDC Study of Enlisted Soldiers
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Studied soldiers from Vietnam and noted a higher level in testosterone which is positively associated with things such as divorce, abusing a partner, using drugs, unemployment, and getting into trouble with the law.
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Jane Goodall
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Social scientist who studied the behavior of chimpanzees. Showed that chimps are able to use tools, teach tool use, and commit acts of organized violence.
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Socialization
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The process by which culture is learned and internalized by each normal member of a society, much of which occurs during childhood.
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Harry Harlow
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Researcher at the primate laboratory of the University of Wisconsin. Studied Rhesus monkeys who after being raised in isolation they were fearful and easily frightened.
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Stimulus- Response Theory
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Dominated social scientific accounts of socialization. The model assumed that behavior is merely a response to external stimuli.
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Jean Piaget
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First person to comprehensively study the Stimulus- Response theory. Believed learning is more than copying and repetition.
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Cognitive Development
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Human mind develops in stages. Brain is modular and matures in stages.
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Sensorimotor
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First stage of cognitive development. Birth until Age 2. Infants only know through their senses.
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Preoperational
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The 2nd stage of Cognitive Development. Age 2-7. Language acquisition is a major part of this stage. Major challenge of this phase is to overcome egocentrism (taking on the role of the other) Also have difficulty with mathematical concepts of volume and transitivity.
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Concrete Operational
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Age 7-12. 3rd stage of cognitive development. Children develop logical principles that enable dissection of the concrete world. Rule of conservation is learned.
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Formal Operational
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4th and final stage. Age 12- Adult. Start to be able to think abstractly. Can logically reason through hypothetical scenarios.
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Object Permanence
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When objects continue to exist when out of sight. Characteristic of Sensorimotor stage.
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Noam Chomsky
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Professor of linguistics at MIT, discovered three properties of the language instinct. Believed the ability to acquire language has a strong genetic component.
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Pidgin vs. Creole
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Pidgin is a simple form of speech that results when people of different language families are thrust together and form a simple form of speech.
Creole evolves from Pidgin into a mature language with grammatical rules. |
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Derek Bickerton
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Discovered teh invention of a Creole in Hawaii.
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Agencies of Socialization
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All humans are alike because of shared biological endowments. Most importance agencies:
1) The Family 2) The School 3) The Peer Group 4) The Mass Media |
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Family
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For most people, family is most important socializing agent. Family transmit values, beliefs and skills, incubate and protect a person in early childhood, provide a child with social identity.
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Peer Group
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Refers to people of roughly the same age and other social characteristics. Develop their own dress, jargon and activities. Interact within their own groups.
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School
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Fulfill crucial functions in the socialization process. Weaken the dependence on family. Have hidden curriculum. Teach concrete operational skills.
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Mass Media
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Radio, motion pictures, music, TV, internet. TV and internet are critical forces in the socialization of children. Internet is a powerful tool for info sharing, identity expression, group formation, and creative enterprise.
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Deviance
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The behavior of humans violating normative expectations. Some forms of deviance can be harmful or harmless.
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Gottfredson and Hirschi
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Defined crime as: "Acts of force or fraud undertaken in the pursuit of self-interest"
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Ordinary Crime
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Robbery, burglary, and homicide are three types of ordinary crime.
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Robbery
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The taking or attempting to take anything of value from the care, custody, or control of a person by force or threat of corce or violence and/or putting the victim in fear. Half of all robberies occur on the street.
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Uniform Crime Reports
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91% arrests for robbery are males under age 25. Robbery rates vary spatially, more than half occur on the street.
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National Crime Victimization Survey
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Shows that rate of robbery has declined significantly in the last 30 yrs.
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Metros with Highest Robbery Rates
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1. Memphis 2. Miami 3. Detroit 4. Houston 5. Baltimore 6. New York City
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Burglary
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The unlawful entry of a structure to commit a felony or theft. 90% of burglaries are committed by males. Most burglaries are opportunistic.
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US Burglary Rate Vs. Nordic Countries
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US has a much lower burglary rate in comparison to nordic countries such as the Netherlands, Denmark, England and Wales, Norway, and Sweden.
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Homicide
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The willful killing of one human being by another.
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Intra-Racial Victimization
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Murder is intra-racial. Affects blacks and whites equally.
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Crude Victimization Rate
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Total number of crime victims in a given year divided by total average population. (see formula)
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Age-Specific Victimization Rate
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Use ages in addition to victimization rate to configure an Age-Specific Victimization rate. (see formula)
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Offender Versatility
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Crime data shows that offenders very rarely specialize. Commit a wide variety of criminal acts.
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Cesare Lombroso
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Gathered data on prison and jail inmates to develop a biological theory of criminal deviance. Advanced a theory of the born criminal which is an atavistic being who reproduces in his person the ferocious instincts of primitive humanity and inferior animals. He identified what he believed to be physical clues or anomalies to criminal atavism. Theory was later dismissed.
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Cortisol
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Studies find that juvenile offenders (guilty of persistent antisocial behavior) have deficient levels of cortisol which is produced by the body in response to fear or anxiety.
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Walter Grove and Sociobiology of Crime
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Sociobiologist that argued that variation in crime by age and gender are suggestive of biological causes.
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Steve Levitt and Abortion-Crime Link
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Used state-level abortion data to predict the remarkable decline in crime rates observed in the 1990s.
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Albert Bandura
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Advanced a social learning model of criminal aggression. Used a Bobo Doll experiment to demonstrate observational learning/modeling.
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Social Learning Thesis of Crime
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Individuals living in high crime rate areas are more likely to act violently that those who dwell in low-crime areas.
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Differential Association Theory of Crime
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Says the propensity to commit deviance is predictable by exposure to and interaction with criminal tutors.
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Structural Strain
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Theory that views criminal deviance as a normal response to the conditions that limit the opportunities for some individuals to obtain the economic success for which we are all supposed to strive.
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Robert K. Merton
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Came up with the Structural Strain Theory of Deviance. Identifies five models of adaptation to the misalignment of goals and means.
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Conformity
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When one accepts institutionalized means and cultural goals
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Ritualism
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When one rejects cultural goals but accepts institutionalized Means.
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Innovation
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When one rejects Institutionalized Means but accepts cultural goals.
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Retreatism
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When one rejects both institutionalized means and cultural goals.
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Rebellion
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Happens when there are new goals and new means.
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Social Disorganization Theory
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Macro-Analytic approach to criminal deviance. Structural disadvantages give rise to moral and cultural disorder.
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Collective Efficacy
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Shared power of a group to coordinate social outcomes. Social disorganization is the loss of neighborhood collective efficacy.
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Concentric Zones
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Crime rates decrease as moves through concentric zones to the suburbs (or commuter zones).
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Social Control Theory of Crime
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The formula of social control theory is intuitively simple (the law of conformity in maximally dense social networks) Four elements cement a person to a group.
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Attachment
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First element that cements a person to a group.
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Investment
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2nd element Investment in conventional lines of action
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Involvement
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3rd element Involvement in conventional activities.
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Beliefs
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4th element Belief in the moral order and law.
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Low self-control
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The unwillingness or inability to defer gratification.
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Stanford Marshmallow Experiment
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Simple test of delayed gratification. Children were tested at 18 years of age and comparisons were made between impulsive children and impulse controlling children. Impulsive children at age 4 averaged 524 verbal and 528 on SAT while impulse controlled scored 610 verbal 652 math. Poor impulse control had higher rates of criminal delinquency.
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Seasonality of Crime
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Types of crime go up and down regularly according to the seasons. There is a seasonal quality to crime rate.
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Drugs and Crime
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Alcohol use and domestic violence has a direct link. Alcohol as well as other drugs are frequently found in the offenders.
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Methamphetamine
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Highly addictive stimulant that has started to spread east and is common in the western US.
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Cocaine, Marijuana and Heroine
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About 75% of current illicit drug users use marijuana. Most widely used illicit drug on the market. Increased crime, domestic violence, accidents, illness, job losses, and reduced productivity are linked to illegal drug use.
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Informal Social Control
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Most common mode of deviance prevention is informal. Not everyone is responsive to soft mechanisms like persuasion or group control.
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Formal Social Control
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All human societies have formal instruments of norm enforcement. The more intense the formal and informal social controls, the less deviance there will be.
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Hechter and Kanazawa
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Researches of informal control in Japan. Stressed three principles that maximized conformity: dependence, visibility, extensiveness.
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Principle of Dependence
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Japanese are dependent on their schools to recommend them, and employers to hire them and keep them employed. Don't want to upset either school or employer.
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Principle of Visibility
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Very little private life in Japan. Schools have tight supervision and open office space once employed.
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Principle of Extensiveness
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Schools, employers, and banks get deep into an individuals business and make sure they are a good person as they should be.
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Prevention
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The attempt to reduce opportunities.
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Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson
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Developed the Opportunity Theory of Crime
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Opportunity Theory of Crime
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A criminal act involves three factors: A motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of effective guardianship. Prevent crime by hardening of targets.
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Deterrence
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The control of criminal deviance by deterrence involves threats of punishment.
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Jack Gibbs and Propositions of Deterrence
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Formulated propositions of effective deterrence.
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Reform and Rehabilitation
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Used to try and persuade people from performing acts of criminality. Used frequently with juveniles.
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Incarceration
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The detention of a person in jail or prison. US is world's leading jailer. Incarceration rate in US has quadrupled since 1980.
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Racial Differentials in Incarceration
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41% male inmate population is Black. 5.8% of the US population is Black male. 62% of prison inmates are Black or Latino. Incarceration rate for Black Americans is 6.5x the rate for white Americans
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Capital Execution
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To sentence one to death for committing a particular crime.
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Criminal Justice System
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Is a massive apparatus for processing legally prohibited deviance.
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Crimes Reported to Police
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Vary by crime type and by Country. Police are often unable to find the criminal.
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Likelihood Felons Serve 1+ years of Jail Time
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3/1000 or .3%.
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Karl Marx
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Creator of most widely discussed concept of social class. Argues Society as a whole is more and more splitting into two great hostile camps, into two great classes directly facing each other: Bourgeoisie and Proletariat.
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Bourgeoisie
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The employer, higher class.
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Proletariat
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The worker, often times lower class.
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Lumpen-Proletariat
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The people on the bottom of society, whom Marx labeled "social scum"
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Capital Accumulation
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Symbolically represented by: M-C-M1 Market competition drives employers to increase accumulation and surplus value in production.
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Champagne Glass Distribution of GDP
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The richest 20% of the world own 82% of the wealth.
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Occupational Prestige
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Is not perfectly correlated with income.
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Socioeconomic Status
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More contemporary measures of social class integrate dimensions of educational attainment, income, wealth and occupational prestige.
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Income+Wealth+Education+Job Prestige
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Is taken into account when measuring socioeconomic status
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Longitudinal Study
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Research in which observations are made of the same people at different times.
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Status Inconsistency
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The dimensions of status- income, education, wealth, & occupational prestige- are highly correlated but mary vary independently of each other. When dimensions of status are misaligned status inconsistency occurs.
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Ascribed versus Achieved Status
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Ascribed is earned without any significant effort. (hereditary, passed on to you) Achieved Status is earned through self-motivation and effort.
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Recidivism Rate
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The Proportion of persons convicted for a criminal offense who are later convicted for committing another crime. Sometimes this rate is computed as the proportion of those freed from prison who are sentenced to prison again.
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Evolutionary Theory of Stratification
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A theory that holds that because culture accumulates in human societies, eventually it happens that no one can master the whole of a group's culture. At that point cultural specialization will be more valued and inequality or stratification will exist.
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Means of Production
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Everything except human labor that is used to produce wealth.
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Superstructure
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Marxist theory that says there is a base and superstructure to society. The superstructure of a society includes its culture, institutions, political power structures, roles, rituals, and state.
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Max Weber
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German sociologist that had a more refined concept of social class.
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Property, Prestige, Power
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Weber argues that these three characteristics cause stratification when unequally distributed. Property (class) Prestige (status) Power (party)
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Income Quintiles
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Economists and Sociologists use income quintiles to estimate stratification.
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Age and Wealth (Billionaires)
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Bill Gates, Warren Buffet, Mark Zuckerberg, etc.
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Warren Buffet
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2nd richest man in America. Gives 50% of wealth to Charity.
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Indian Caste System
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Birth alone determines a person's entire future. Four castes: Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra.
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Meritocracy
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Stratification system where social position depends entirely on a person's ability and effort.
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Stratification
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The unequal distribution of rewards among members of a society; the class structure. Inequality.
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Exchange Mobility
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Mobility that occurs because some people fall, thereby making room for others to rise in the stratification system.
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Structural Mobility
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Mobility that occurs because of changes in the relative distribution of upper and lower statuses in a society.
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Top income decile
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The notion of structural mobility comes into sharp relief when the income share of the top income decile is graphed longitudinally. Between 1983 and 2005 the real income of the median household rose 13% but the income of the richest .1% of americans rose 296%
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Theories of Stratification
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Ways to describe how stratification occurs and exists based on societal structure.
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Davis-Moore Functional Theory
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People must be motivated by greater rewards to fill important, demanding roles- occupations vary in importance. The greater the functional importance of an occupation, the greater the financial and prestige rewards attached to it.
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Replaceability
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A measure of the functional importance of a role based on the extent to which other roles can substitute for or take on the duties of that particular role. For example, a doctor can easily substitute for an orderly, but the reverse is not so.
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