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124 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
norms
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rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members
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law
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a norm formally created through a society's political system.
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crime
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the violation of a criminal law enacted by the federal, state, or local government
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misdemeanor
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is a less serious crime punishable by less than one year in prison
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felony
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a more serious crime punishable by at least one year in prison
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crime against property
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crime that involves theft or property belonging to others
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crime against persons
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crime that involves violence or the threat of violence against others
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stalking
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repeated efforts by someone to establish or re-establish a relationship against the will of the victim
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juvenile delinquency
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a violation of the law by young people
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white-collar crime
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illegal activities conducted by poeple of high social position during the course of their employment or regular business activities
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corporate crime
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an illegal act committed by a corporation or by a person acting on its behalf
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organized crime
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a business that supplies illegal goods and vices
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victimless crimes
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offenses that directly harm only the person who commits them
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violence
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behavior that causes injury to people or damage to property
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institutional violence
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violence carried out by government representatives under the law
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anti-institutional violences
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violence directed against the government in violation of the law
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mass murder
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the intentional, unlawful killing of four or more people at one time and place
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serial murder
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the killing of several people by one offender over a period of time
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youth gangs
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groups of young people who identify with one another and with a particular territory
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criminal justice system
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society's use of due process, involving police, courts, and punishment, to enforce the law
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Police Discretion
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six factors:
1- how serious is the crime 2- what does the victim want 3- is the suspect cooperative? 4- does the suspect have a record? 5- are bystanders watching 6- what is the suspect's race |
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Changes in police policy
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community policing - police more visible to public
zero-tolerance policy- respond to any offense |
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plea bargaining
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a negotiation which the state reduces a defendant's change in exchange for a guilty plea.
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retribution
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is moral vengeance by which society inflicts on the offender suffering comparable to that caused by the offense
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deterrence
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using punishment to discourage further crime
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rehabilitation
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reforming an offender to prevent future offenses
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social protection
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protecting the public by using incarceration or execuation to prevent an offender from committing further offenses
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criminal recidivism
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later offenses by people previously convicted of crimes
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justifications for punishment
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retribution
deterrance rehabilitation societal protection |
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community-based corrections
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correctional programs that take place in society at large rather than behind prison wals
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probation
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a policy of letting a convicted offender stay in the community with regular supervision and under conditions imposed by the court
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shock probation
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a judge senteces a convicted offender to prison for a substantial length of time but then orders that only part of the sentence will be served in prison and the rest will be served on probation
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parole
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is a policy of releasing inmates from prison to serve the rest of their sentence under supervision in the local community
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mesomorphs
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term from william sheldon for physically fit/athletic people, more likely to be deviant
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endomorphs
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william Sheldon - fat people, less likely to be deviant
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ectomorphs
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William Sheldon- skinny people, also unlikely to be deviant
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Walter Reckless and Simon Dinitz pg. 167
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explained delinquincy by the boy's degree of moral conscience. "Good boys control their conscience/contain it. Called their theory the containment theory
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structural-functional theory -
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investigates how any social pattern contributes to the operation of society as a system.
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Emile Durkheim - pg. 168
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structural-functional theory: crime exists everywhere. One of the key functions of crime is uniting people with a shared sense of outrage.
Four Functions of Crime: -Crime affirms a society's norms and values -Recognizing crime helps everyone clarify the boundary between right and wrong -reacting to crime brings people together -crime encourages social change |
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Robert Merton -pg 168
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Strain Theory: crime is a product of society itself. helps explain how and why rule breaking takes various forms.
Five Specific outcomes: -conformity- is likely among people who accept society's goals and also have access to the conventional means to get there. -innovation- adopting some unconventional means to achieve a conventional goal. -ritualism- living obsessively by the rules -retreatism- turning away from both approved goals and legitimate means "drop out of society" -rebellion - involves not just rejecting conventional goals and means, but also advocating some entirely new system. |
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Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohilin
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opportunity structure- whether or not one turns toward deviant behavior depends not only on one's access to legitimate opportunity, but also on one's access to illegitimate opportunity
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Travis Hirschi
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Control Theory - argues that strong social and emotional attatchments to others discourages people from engaging in crime.
Four Social Ties: - Attachment to other people - commitment to conformity - involvement in conventional activities - a belief in the rightness of cultural norms and values |
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Symbolic Interaction theory
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explores how people construct reality in everyday interaction. From this point of view, criminal or violent behavior is learned by individuals in the same way that people learn everything else.
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Edwin Sutherland
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Differential Association Theory- great deal of learning takes place in social groups, whether a person moves toward conformity or deviance depends on the relative extent of association with others who encourage or discourage conventional behavior
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Howard S. Becker
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Labeling Theory- the idea that crime and all other forms of rule breaking result not so much from what people do as from how others respond to those actions
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Edwin Lemert
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Primary deviance - passing significance, common violations
-secondary deviance- person begins to change, now basing choices on this deviant identity |
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Erving Goffman
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Stigma- a powerful negative social label that radically changes a person's self-concept and social identity
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Social-Conflict Theory - crime deviance
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social inequality shapes who and what is defined as criminal. How laws are written, which neighborhoods police patrol, which categories of people end up being arrested- all these reflect who has power and who does not
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Karl Marx - crime deviance
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Class and Crime:
in capitalist society, legal systems protect the property of the capitalist calss |
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Feminist Theory - crime deviance
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gender stratification is the pattern by which men have more wealth, prestige, and power than women. Poor women forced o crime, male power is evident in the operation of the criminal justice system
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radical-left view - crime deviance
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problem- the great inequality of a capitalist society promotes criminal activity by the underclass, individuals unable to succeed by legitimate means, the criminal system is used to maintain order and protect the interests of capitalist elites
-solution - crime violence can never be controlled until class differences cease to exist |
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Liberal View - crime deviance
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Problem- a lack of jobs is the major factor that forces problem- people to break the law, often as a means to survive and to support their families
-solution- Government needs to use resources not to build more prisons but to expand economic opportunites in poor urban and rural areas where people are in desperate need of work |
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Conservative View - crime deviance
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problem- the moral order of society is breaking down, because of the decline of the two-parent family, weakening religious values, and so much violence in the mass media
-solution- the single most signinficant step towards reducing crime and violence is to strengthen families and increase the culture's emphasis on good parenting; tougher law enforcement is also necessary when crime has occurred |
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drug
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any chemical substance other than food or water that affecsts the mind or body
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why do people use drugs
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1- therapeutic uses
2- recreational use 3- spiritual or psychological use 4- Escape 5- Social Conformity |
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dependency
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a state in which a person's body has adjusted to regular use of a drug
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stimulants
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drugs that increase alertness, altering a person's mood by increasing energy
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depressants
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drugs that slow the operation of the central nervous system.
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alcoholism
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adiction to alcohal
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codependency
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behavior on the part of others that helps a substance abuser continue the abuse
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Strategies to Control Drugs
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-Interdiction- preventing movement of drugs across the borders
- prosecution - put drug dealers behind bars - education - school programs - treatment - help those addicted to drugs |
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decriminalization
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removing the current criminal penalties that punish the manufacturing, sale, and personal use of drugs
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structural-functional theory - drugs
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approach to drugs- directs attention to the societal consequences of using various drugs. Some drugs can improve interaction, caffein. Other drugs can be harmful, heroin.
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Symbolic-Interaction Theory - drugs
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various societies attach various meanings to drugs and their use. The use of drugs, like other forms of behavior, is learned by people in various social settings. This learning involves both skills in using the drug as well as attitudes toward a drug and its use
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social-conflict theory - drugs
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links society's view of various drugs to issues of social power and social inequity. Drugs that are highly profitable to powerful corporations are sold more freely, while those that are not are subject to greater legal controls
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education
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the social institution by which a society transmits knowledge - including basic facts and job skills, as well as cultural norms and values - to its members
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schooling
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formal instruction carried out by specially trained teachers
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functional illiteracy
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the inability to reaad and write or do basic arithmetic well enough to carry out daily responsibility
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culture capital
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the experiences and opportunities that shape a student's ability to learn and to succeed at school and elsewhere.
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tracking
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the policy of assigning students to different educational programs.
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self-fulfilling prophecy
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a situation in which people who are defined in a certain way eventually think and act as if the definition were true
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title IX
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Congress passed the Education Amendments to the Civil Rights Act. bans sex discrimination in education and requires schools recieving federal funding to provide male and female students with equal educational programs.
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English immersion
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the policy of teaching non-English speakers in English
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bilingual education
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the policy of offering most classes in student's native language while also teaching them English
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mainstreaming
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integrating students with special needs into the overall educational program
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special education
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schooling children with physical or mental disabilites in separate classes with specially trained teachers
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structural - functional Theory - education
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macro-level
reveals that schooling helps our society operate by performing numerous functions, including transmitting knowledge and skills to young people, preparing them for the world of work according to their talents and interests, and uniting the population by teaching common values and beliefs. Schooling also performs many latent functions such as supervising young people during the day while parents are working - problems- because of the importance of schooling to the operation of society, anything that threatens the effectiveness of our schools is likely to be defended as a social problem. |
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Symbolic-Interaction Theory- education
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micro level
focuses on the meanings and understandings that people construct in their everyday social interactions, Using this approach, the experience of schooling is likely to be different in some ways for every individual. How a school labels a particular child is likely to shape that child's experience of schooling -problems - how we label children can create problems. Because labels can become real to us and have real consequences, a school's decision to label a child in a certain way can create a self-fulfilling prophecy. Children may come to think of themselves in terms the labels used by school officials and perform accordingly |
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Social-Confilct Theory - education
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macro level
links schooling to social inequality. Rather than showing how schooling helps the entire society operate, this approach highlights how schooling reflects existing divisions in society. Schooling both reflects patterns of social inequality and helps perpetuate this inequality by passing these differences from one generation to the next. problems - educational problems include the inequality in funding that sets some schools well above others and also the system of tracing that often places young people from well-to-do families in the best classes and programs and those from disadvantaged families in the worst classes and programs |
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Feminist Theory - education
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macro-level
schooling is a system of preparing young people to take on adult responsibilities. To the extent that society defines men and women as different types of people, the extent and content of schooling for the two sexes will differ. problems- educational inequality also includes gender. Women were long excluded from higher education. Today, women have been empowered through more schooling, but remain relatively disadvantaged in terms of income and power. |
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charter schools
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public schools that are given the freedom to try out new policies and progrmas
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magnet schools
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public schools that offer special facilities and programs in pursuit of educational excellence
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school voucher program
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a program that provides parents with funds they can use at a public school or private school of their choice
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radical - left view - education
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problem - because schools operate within a social system marked by striking inequality of wealth and power, they fail much of the U.S. population and perpetuate class differences.
-solution- equalizing funding for all schools; ultimately, the solution lies in making radical changes in the economic and political systems to create a more egalitarian society |
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liberal view - education
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problem - Although schools are educating more young people than ever before, they lack the funds and programs to meet the needs of some categories of the population
solution - increase government funding for schools, especially in disadvantaged areas; expand Head Start and bilingual programs to improve schooling for minorities and low-income children. |
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Conservative View - education
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Schools are a government monopoly that does not operate efficiently and is not accountable. Schools fail to educate a significant share of young people.
-solution - various strategies such as schooling for profit and the use of school vouchers will force public schools to become more competitive; all schools must be made accountable for their performance |
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deindustrialization
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the decline of industrial production that occurred in the UNited States after about 1950
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globalization
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the expansion of economic activity around the world with little regard for national borders.
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primary labor market
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includes jobs that provide workers with good pay and extensive benefits
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secondary labor market
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jobs that provide workers with low pay and few benefits
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OSHA
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Occupational Safety and Health Administration - regulate workplace health and safety.
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NIOSHA
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National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health - an organization that conducts research on workplace hazards, ranging from toxic chemicals to ailments that result from repetitive motion or heavy lifting.
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Alienation : Marx's View
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alienation- powerlessness in the workplace resulting in the experience of isolation and misery. He believed work to be natural for human beings, ideally a satisfying activity by which people meet their needs and develop their creative potential.
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Alienation: Weber's View
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the depersonalization of nit just the workplace but all of society brought on by a rational focus on efficiency.
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rationalization of society
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Weber: the historical change from tradition to rationality and efficiency as the typical way people think about the world
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McDonaldization
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refers to defining work in terms of the principles of efficiency, predictability, uniformity, and automation
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institutional discriminization
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bias that is built into the operation of the economy, education, or other social institutions.
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labor unions
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worker organizations that seek to improve wages conditions through various strategies, including negotiations and strikes
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The Railway Labor Act, the Norris-LaGuardia Act, the National Labor Relations Act
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guaranteed the right of workers to organize and form labor unions - passed by Congress
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telecommuting
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refers to linking employees to a central office using information technology, including telephones, computers, and the Internet
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Structural-Functional Theory - workplace
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Macro-level
sees the workplace as linked to other aspects of society. Technology is crucial in shaping the workplace. The Industrial REvolution shaped the workplace of the twentieth century, just as the information Revolution is shaping the workplace of the twenty-first century problems - Rapid change can disrupt the social order, causing problems. For example, new technology has caused the loss of many traditional types of jobs. But other social institutions such as education responds, preparing workers for new types of jobs. |
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Symbolic-Interaction Theory - workplace
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Micro level
- focusses on the meanings people attach to the world around them. With regard to work, people who work in the primary labor market generally define their work in positive terms and think that the work reflects well on them. People who work in the secondary labor market find little positive meaning in their work, seeing the job mostly as a source of income - Problem - The main problems is that workers with jobs in the secondary labor market are not able to find much positive meaning in their work. As a result, they must look for satisfaction outside of the workplace |
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Social-Conflict Theory - workplace
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macro level - links the workplace to social inequality. Marx explained that the capitalist elite does no work at all yet gains the profits from the work done by the others. As long as the workplace operates according to the rules of a capitalist economy, work is the exploitation of the many by the few.
- Problems - According to Marx, capitalism creates wealth for the few and alienation for the working majority. Weber agreed that alienation is a workplace problem, although he pointed to rationality in the modern world as the cause. |
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Feminist Theory - workplace
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macro level
explains how gender is a basic organizing principle of society, including the world of work. Just about every job is widely viewed as either "feminine" or "masculine" - Problems - Gender segregates many workplaces according to sex. At the same time, jobs viewed as "masculine" provide the greatest wealth and power. By contrast, because women typically hold "feminine" jobs, they are disadvantaged. |
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Radical-Left View - workplace
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Problem -the capitalist market system is the cause of many economic problems, including low wages, workplace hazards, and unemployment. Capitalism fails to meet most people's economic needs by placing profits ahead of people.
Solution - Workers should own and control the means of economic production. Government acting in the interest of the population as a whole should be responsible for economic policy |
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Liberal View - workplace
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Problem - the market system is productive but it does not ensure the welfare of all. Low wages, unemployment, and discrimination based on gender, race, and ethnicity are all problems in the U.S. workplace
Solution- While allowing market forces to operate, government agencies must regulate the economy to ensure that workers receive a living wage and that the workplace is safe and free from discriminization |
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Conservative View - workplace
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Problem - The market system operates efficiently and is highly productive. Government regulation, however, reduces the productivity of the market. Therefore, government should regulate the economy as little as possible
Solution - The greatest number of people will benefit most if market forces are allowed to operate freely. THe economy does a good job of regulating itself and moving workers from older industries to newer kinds of work |
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family
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is asocial institution that unites individuals into cooperating groups that care for one another, including any children
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Kinship
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social bond, based on common ancestry, marriage, or adoption, that joins individuals into families
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nuclear families
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one or two parents and their children
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extended family
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parents and children and also grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins who often live close to one another and operate as a family unit
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marriage
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a lawful relationship usually involving economic cooperation, sexual activity, and childbearing
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families of affinity
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people with or without legal or blood ties who feel they belong together and define themselves as a familiy
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cohabitation
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the sharing of a household by an unmarried couple
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blended families
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families in which children have some combination of biological parents and stepparents
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in vitro fertilization
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uniting egg and sperm in a laboratory
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surrogate motherhood
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an arrangement by which one woman carries and bears a child for another woman
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structural-functional theory - family
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macro-level
Importance?- views the family as the foundation of society because it has several important functions, including regulating sexually and providing a comited parental relationship as the setting for raising children. Families also provide their members with economic and emotional support -Problems - Because of the importance of families to the operation of society, anything that threatens the strength or stability of families - the rise in divorce or the increase in single parenting - is likely to be defined as a social problem |
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symbolic-interaction theory - family
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micro-level
Importance - focuses on the patterns of interaction by which people construct family life. For example, children raised with love and steady guidance are likely to develop a positive self-image. Gender can operate as a script in married life, with the effect of reducing a couple's intimacy. Problem - This approach highlights how individuals experience family life. Individuals experience the family in their own ways, subjectively defining their situation whatever it may be in objective terms, as a problem or not: Therefore we cannot make about family problems. |
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Social-Conflict Theory - family
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macro-level
focuses on social inequality. Engles explained that the family is a system that transmits wealth from one generation to another thereby reproducing the class structure in each generation Problems - From this point of view, the main problem is social inequality, and families contribute to this problem. The family is a system that perpetuates the class structure over time |
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Feminist Theory - Family
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macro-level
Importance - Feminist theory explains how the development of families gives men control over women and especially women's sexuality Problem - Feminist theory claims the main problem with families is that this social institution is a foundation of gender stratification, limiting the power of women |
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Radical-Left View - Family
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Problem - Family life is bound up with inequality; families support inequality based on class gender, and sexual orientation, all of which is unjust
- Solution - Increasing social equality i possible only by radically restructuring the family as it exists today; society should consider collective arrangements for performing housework and childcare. |
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Liberal - View
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Problem - There is not enough tolerance for the broad range of family life in today's society; efforts to impose any model of an "ideal family" limit people's choices; poverty among women and children is serious problem.
Solution - Encourage tolerance for various kinds of families, including gay marriage, Increasing women's economic opportunities will benefit children. Enforce all anti-discrimination laws, and expand affordable child care programs |
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Conservative View - Family
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Problem - Conventional families are breaking down: Divorce, single parenting, and living together without marriage are symptoms of a "me first" culture that weakens society and places children at risk.
-Solution - Encourage the spread of a "culture of marriage" Make covenant marriage more widely available, abolish no-fault divorce laws, and discourage couples from living together in low-commitment relationships. |